Investigating learners’ attitudes toward virtual reality learning environments: Based on a constructivist approach Hsiu-Mei Huang a , Ulrich Rauch b , Shu-Sheng Liaw c, * a Department of Information Management, National Taichung Institute of Technology,129, Sec. 3, Saming Rd., Taichung 404, Taiwan b The Learning Centre (TLC@UTT),University of Trinidad and Tobago, O’Meara Industrial Park, Arima, Trinidad, WI, USA c General Education Center, China Medical University, 91 Shiuesh Rd., Taichung 404, Taiwan article info Article history: Received 12 January 2010 Received in revised form 20 April 2010 Accepted 13 May 2010 Keywords: Virtual reality Pedagogical issues Teaching/learning strategies Interactive learning environments abstract The use of animation and multimedia for learning is now further extended by the provision of entire Virtual Reality Learning Environments (VRLE). This highlights a shift in Web-based learning from a conventional multimedia to a more immersive, interactive, intuitive and exciting VR learning envi- ronment. VRLEs simulate the real world through the application of 3D models that initiates interaction, immersion and trigger the imagination of the learner. The question of good pedagogy and use of tech- nology innovations comes into focus once again. Educators attempt to find theoretical guidelines or instructional principles that could assist them in developing and applying a novel VR learning envi- ronment intelligently. This paper introduces the educational use of Web-based 3D technologies and highlights in particular VR features. It then identifies constructivist learning as the pedagogical engine driving the construction of VRLE and discusses five constructivist learning approaches. Furthermore, the authors provide two case studies to investigate VRLEs for learning purposes. The authors conclude with formulating some guidelines for the effective use of VRLEs, including discussion of the limitations and implications for the future study of VRLEs. Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that has become extremely popular in recent years. VR technology has been successfully employed in educational applications and is at the core of what is known as Virtual Reality learning environments (VRLEs) (Chittaro & Ranon, 2007; John, 2007; Monahan, McArdle, & Bertolotto, 2008; Pan, Cheok, Yang, Zhu, & Shi, 2006; Rauch, 2007). A VRLE allows the visualization of three dimensional (3D) data and provides an interactive environment that reinforces the sensation of an immersion into computer- generated virtual world. Additionally, a VRLE offers the opportunity to simulate a realistic and safe environment for learners to perform specific tasks. A VRLE offers real-time simulation where three-dimensional computer graphics are used to mimic the real world (Burdea, 1999, pp. 87–96). Traditional immersive VR systems are expensive, fragile, and not suitable for a long period of use (Limniou, Roberts, & Papadopoulos, 2008; Tax’en & Naeve, 2002), thus the developed applications are not accessible to many learners. Indeed, running VR systems are asso- ciated with high a high cost because of the special hardware is needed, such as head-mounted displays (HMD) or multiple projectors, and 3D input devices. These drawbacks make immersive HMDs difficult to use in large classroom settings (Tax’en & Naeve, 2002). To invigorate students learning, a number of higher resolution displays with high quality audio systems can be useful. For example, CAVE, invented at the Electronic Visualization Laboratory of the University of Illinois at Chicago, is designed to project images on the surrounding walls around the users while an advanced audio sound system enhances the sense of immersion in the VR learning environment (Sherman & Craig, 2003). In addition, the option of offering 3D VR learning in a classroom setting is now feasible, given that VR learning environments are now run on low-cost personal computers. Although this type of VR environment has a low-cost advantage, users are not full sensual immersion the learning environment. However, learners using personal computer VR systems are less likely to feel motion sickness and experience fatigue than true immersive VR (Tax’en & Naeve, 2002). * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ886 4 22053366x6319; fax: þ886 4 22031108. E-mail addresses: hmhuang@ntit.edu.tw (H.-M. Huang), ulrich.rauch@utt.edu.tt (U. Rauch), ssliaw@mail.cmu.edu.tw (S.-S. Liaw). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Computers & Education journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu 0360-1315/$ – see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.014 Computers & Education xxx (2010) 1–12 Please cite this article in press as: Huang, H.-M., et al., Investigating learners’ attitudes toward virtual reality learning environments:..., Computers & Education (2010), doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.014