HOW IMPORTANT IS PRACTICING AS A PREDICTOR OF LEARNING OUTCOMES IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC? Susan Hallam Institute of Education, University of London ABSTRACT Research exploring the extent to which the amount of practice undertaken predicts instrumental music attainment has tended to neglect longer term learning outcomes including the learner’s commitment to involvement in music. This research addresses that issue. 163 instrumental music students completed a questionnaire which sought information about their practicing strategies, attitudes towards learning and performing, the level of support they received, their level of attainment, time spent practicing and time learning. Their teachers were also asked to rate them on a range of musical ability and motivational measures. The students were aged from 7- 17 with standards ranging from preliminary to Grade 8. A series of stepwise regression analyses revealed that the level of expertise attained was best predicted by various measures of time spent learning while the quality of learning outcomes as assessed by marks gained in grade examinations was best predicted by self- esteem, teachers’ ratings of musical ability and involvement in extra-curricula musical activities. Longer-term outcomes in relation to becoming a professional musician or being involved in music in an amateur capacity were predicted by self-esteem, self-efficacy and enjoyment of performing. Professional aspirations were also supported by membership of high quality performing groups and effective practicing strategies, while amateur aspirations were predicted by parental support. The research supports earlier findings indicating the importance of the overall amount of practice undertaken in determining overall levels of expertise attained while the quality of learning outcomes and commitment to ongoing engagement with music were better predicted by a wider range of factors. 1. INTRODUCTION Although historically research in music education focused on questions relating to musical ability, recently, researchers have acknowledged the importance of a range of factors in determining the development of expertise in music, e.g. practice (Ericsson et al., 1990; Sloboda et al., 1996); parental support (Davidson et al., 1996); motivation (O'Neill, 1996); personality (Kemp, 1996); prior knowledge (Hallam, 1997); and approaches to learning (Hallam, 1995a; 1995b; 1997). Hallam (1998) explored the combined influence of some of these factors on attainment. The research was based on models developed to describe learning in mainstream educational contexts, in particular the work of Carroll (1963) which proposed that degree of learning is a function of the relationship between time actually spent learning and time needed for learning. This assumes that a learner will succeed in a learning task if s/he is given opportunity and allowed sufficient time to engage actively with the task until mastery is achieved. Perseverance is also required. Time needed for learning is determined by aptitude, ability to understand instructions and the quality of instruction. Carroll's (1963) model has had considerable influence on research relating to school learning (see Carroll, 1989) and has been important in highlighting the importance of time, effort and motivation in determining achievement. Hallam (1998a) explored the relevance of Carroll’s model in relation to playing a musical instrument. Multiple regression revealed that the best predictors of overall attainment were the length of time learning (beta weight .784) followed by the teacher’s rating of ability to understand instructions (.231). Together these gave a multiple R of .88. When examination mark, giving an indication of the quality of the playing, was considered alone the single significant predictor variable was the music teachers' rating of musical ability suggesting that different learning outcomes, level of attainment and quality of attainment, may be determined by different factors. An overall measure of attitudes towards practice based on Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action did not contribute to predicting the level of attainment. What this and other earlier research failed to consider was the longer term intentions of the pupils, whether they had aspirations to become professional musicians, to continue to play as amateurs or had no real motivation to continue playing. This research aims to explore these issues. 2. METHODOLOGY 163 music students learning to play instruments in an English Local Education Music Service completed a questionnaire which sought information about their practicing habits and strategies, their attitudes towards learning a musical instrument and performing, the level of support they received from their friends and relatives, their level of attainment, the amount of time that they spent practicing, the time that they had been learning, and their future musical aspirations. Their teachers were also asked to rate them on a range of musical ability and motivational measures on a scale from 1 to 7. The students were aged from 7-17 with standards ranging from preliminary to Grade 8. Eighty-three were wind players (51%) including clarinet, flute, oboe, saxophone, trumpet, French horn, cornet, bass and trombone. Eighty played stringed instruments (49%) (violin, viola, cello). ISBN 1-876346-50-7 © 2004 ICMPC 165