The function of Chalcolithic metalwork in Italy: an assessment based on use-wear analysis Andrea Dolfini Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK article info Article history: Received 30 August 2010 Received in revised form 22 November 2010 Accepted 30 November 2010 Keywords: Use-wear Metalwork Italy Chalcolithic Copper tools Halberds abstract This paper presents results of the use-wear analysis of Chalcolithic copper-base metalwork from the Italian peninsula. Previous research led to contrasting scholarly opinions regarding the function of early metal axes, daggers and halberds from this region. Whilst some authors interpreted these objects as utilitarian tools and weapons, others saw them as symbolic signifiers of social status and personhood. The analysis conducted here shows that this is a false dichotomy as all classes of metalwork seem to embody to some extent both utilitarian and non-utilitarian values. In particular, axes were primarily used for woodworking and other practical tasks, but were mostly withdrawn from circulation when still usable. This suggests that deposition practices bore a loose relationship, if any, with the functional value of the tools. Daggers were employed in a range of symbolically charged practices that left little wear on cutting edges. These probably included the sacrificial slaughtering and skinning of large animals such as cattle and horses. Halberds were utilised as weapons in champion’s duels in which display of combative skills and prowess would have been far more important than killing the opponent. This explains the relatively low rate of damaged blades in the record. Regardless of their practical function in lifetime settings, these objects were all similarly employed in burial to reproduce core social values such as gender and age. Importantly, this study contributes to debunking undemonstrated assumptions con- cerning the function of early metalwork in European prehistory. It also defines a replicable analytical protocol for the use-wear analysis of ancient copper-alloy artefacts. Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The function of early Italian metalwork has long been debated. Chalcolithic copper-base axes, daggers and halberds have been alternatively interpreted as symbols of social status made for display and funerary consumption; functional tools utilised for practical tasks; or weapons employed in prehistoric warfare. The first hypothesis was put forward by Barker (1971, 1981) and Avery et al. (1973), who argued that Chalcolithic daggers and halberds were inadequate for practical use due to their overly thin blades and other design flaws. In a similar vein, Keates (2002) interpreted these objects as symbolic signifiers of adult maleness based on their ubiquitous appearance on human imagery and rock-art. In contrast, Skeates (1993, p.32) maintained that relatively soft and thin blades could have been devised for specialised tasks such as slicing and stabbing, whilst Peroni (1971 , p.200) saw daggers as key compo- nents of early warrior panoplies that would have been employed in ritualised combats. Similarly contrasting interpretations have also been afforded to axes. Whilst it is generally presumed that these implements would have been utilised for woodworking, some authors pointed out that the soft pure copper normally employed in their making could be suggestive of non-utilitarian considerations (Pearce, 2007). Neutron Diffraction analysis performed on a sample of early Italian axes (including the tool found with the Iceman) led to further questioning their functionality. It was observed that most objects had been slightly mechanically worked after casting and then partially annealed, but none were work-hardened in order to enhance their functional properties (Artioli, 2007; Artioli et al., 2003). Yet experi- ments conducted with a replica of the soft Iceman axe showed that this implement was capable of felling a 50-year-old yew tree e a species well known for its hard wood e in only three quarters of an hour (Fleckinger and Steiner, 1999, p.85). This leaves questions concerning the use-value and symbolic value of early Italian metalwork unanswered. The aim of this paper is to assess the function of early copper-base axes, daggers and halberds from Italy by means of use-wear analysis. This technique is traditionally applied to lithic and osseous materials, but has been recently tested on metalwork with satisfactory results E-mail address: andrea.dolfini@ncl.ac.uk. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas 0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.11.025 Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1037e1049