Impact of the Stage of Ripening and Dietary Fat on in Vitro Bioaccessibility of -Carotene in ‘Ataulfo’ Mango J. DE JESUS ORNELAS-PAZ, † MARK L. FAILLA, ‡ ELHADI M. YAHIA,* ,§ AND ALFONSO GARDEA-BEJAR † Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, Department of Human Nutrition, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Juriquilla, 76230, Querétaro, Mexico Pulp from “slightly ripe”, “moderately ripe”, or “fully ripe” mangoes was digested in vitro in the absence and presence of processed chicken as a source of exogenous fat and protein to examine the impact of stage of ripening of mango on micellarization during digestion and intestinal cell uptake (i.e., bioaccessibility) of -carotene. The quantity of -carotene transferred to the micelle fraction during simulated digestion significantly increased as the fruit ripened and when chicken was mixed with mango before digestion. Qualitative and quantitative changes that occur in pectin from mango pulp during the ripening process influenced the efficiency of micellarization of -carotene. Finally, the uptake of -carotene in micelles generated during simulated digestion by Caco-2 human intestinal cells confirmed the bioaccessibility of the provitamin A carotenoid in mango. KEYWORDS: Mangifera indica L.; -carotene isomers; bioavailability; depolymerized pectin; carotenoid micellarization; Caco-2 cells INTRODUCTION Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a popular fruit in many countries, commonly consumed at different ripening stages either alone or combined with other foods (1). The typical yellow-orange color of ripened mango fruit is due to the presence of carotenoids (2), with all-trans--carotene being one the most abundant (3, 4). The relatively high content of all- trans--carotene supports the likelihood that mango contributes to the health of populations routinely ingesting the fruit. This carotenoid possesses the highest provitamin A activity (5) and seems to prevent some types of cancer (6) and the oxidation of LDL (7), a process implicated in the development of athero- sclerosis. Several studies have demonstrated that the beneficial effects of carotenoids depend upon the amount that is actually absorbed and/or metabolized by the organism (5). The absorp- tion of carotenoids is a complex process that requires the transfer of the carotenoids from the food to mixed micelles for delivery to small intestinal epithelial cells and incorporation of the intact carotenoid or retinyl ester products into chylomicrons secreted into lymph (5, 8). Numerous factors affect these processes, including carotenoid speciation, food matrix, type and intensity of food matrix processing, and some components such as the amount of fat and fiber in the food and meal (9, 10). Food matrix refers to the combined effects of all factors from a food that simultaneously promotes or reduces the bioavailability of endogenous carotenoids. The matrix certainly contributes to the variable bioavailability of carotenoids in different foods and meals (10, 11), as well as that from the same food processed according to different styles (12). The different matrices in a plant food at different stages of ripening are also likely to affect carotenoid bioavailability. Marked qualitative and quantitative changes in carotenoids, organic acids, lipids, phenolics, volatile compounds, and nonstructural and structural carbohydrates have been reported during the short duration of the ripening process of mango fruit (13–16). The effects of such compositional changes might modify the bioavailability of mango carotenoids at different stages of ripening. Existing data on the bioavail- ability of mango carotenoids are limited and contradictory. The accumulation of vitamin A in rat liver fed with a diet containing mango suggests that all-trans--carotene in this fruit is readily bioavailable (17). However, supplementation with retinyl palmi- tate and mango was insufficient to correct vitamin A deficiency in Senegalese children (18). The primary objective of this investigation was to examine the influence of stage of ripening on the bioaccessibility of -carotene from mango using the coupled in Vitro digestion and Caco-2 human cell model. ‘Ataulfo’ mango fruit was selected because it is one of the most important mango cultivars in Mexico (1). We also investigated the influence of dietary fat and mango pectin, promoter and probable inhibitor, respectively, * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Telephone/Fax: 52-442-2281416. E-mail: yahia@uaq.mx. † Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo. ‡ The Ohio State University. § Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 1511–1516 1511 10.1021/jf072751r CCC: $40.75  2008 American Chemical Society Published on Web 01/31/2008