Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Behavioural Processes 78 (2008) 449–454 Does training make you smarter? The effects of training on dogs’ performance (Canis familiaris) in a problem solving task Sarah Marshall-Pescini a,∗ , Paola Valsecchi b , Irena Petak c , Pier Attilio Accorsi d , Emanuela Prato Previde a a Istituto di Psicologia, Universit` a di Milano, Via T. Pini 1, 20134 Milano, Italy b Dipartimento di Biologia Evolutiva e Funzionale, Universit` a di Parma, Italy c Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universityof Zagreb, Croatia d Facolt` a di Medicina Veterinaria, Universit` a di Bologna, Italy Received 29 January 2008; received in revised form 22 February 2008; accepted 29 February 2008 Abstract This study investigates the influence of training experiences on dogs’ performance in a problem solving task, namely opening a box to obtain food. One hundred and eighteen dogs allocated to two different groups according to their training experience (no/basic training vs high level training) were tested. In each group the dogs saw the researcher manipulating either the paw-pad or the lid, prior to being allowed free access to the apparatus. No effect of the locus of manipulation was observed. However, there was a strong effect of training on the dogs’ performance regardless of manipulation condition. Compared to untrained dogs, highly trained dogs were more successful in opening the box and spent significantly more time interacting with the apparatus; whereas untrained dogs spent significantly more time looking back at their owners and the researcher. These results indicate that high levels of training improve dogs’ problem solving ability, with dogs appearing to be more proactive in the their interaction with novel objects. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Dog; Problem solving; Training 1. Introduction Studies on the domestic dog have increased noticeably in the last 10 years, especially those concerning the dog’s cognitive abilities and comprehension of human communication (Call et al., 2003; Collier-Baker et al., 2004; Hare and Tomasello, 2005; Osthaus et al., 2005; Schwab and Huber, 2006). Dogs have thus been shown to be highly proficient at following human referen- tial gestures such as pointing (McKinley and Sambrook, 2000; Soproni et al., 2002; Brauer et al., 2006) and to learn via obser- vation both from a human and a canine demonstrator in a number of situations (Pongr´ acz et al., 2001, 2005; Kubinyi et al., 2003; Top´ al et al., 2006; Range et al., 2007). However, despite the fact that many pet dogs in everyday life undergo training programs ranging from basic obedience to par- ticipation in high level competitive activities (agility, working ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 02 50315972; fax: +39 02 50315993. E-mail address: sarah.marshall@unimi.it (S. Marshall-Pescini). trials, schutzhund, etc.), comparably few studies have investi- gated the effect of training on dogs’ lives and behaviour. A number of studies have looked at the potential relationship between training experiences and the prevalence of behavioural problems, with mixed results. On the one hand, Voith et al. (1992) found no effects of obedience training on the likeli- hood of dogs showing problem behaviours and Podberscek and Serpell (1997) found that the type of training had no significant effect on their levels of aggression. On the other hand, Bennett and Rohlf (2007) found a negative correlation between training engagement and problem behaviours with trained dogs being more obedient and friendly, less aggressive towards strangers, family and other dogs and less nervous and prone to exces- sive barking. Similarly Kobelt et al. (2003) found a negative correlation between obeying commands and excessive nervous- ness and excitement, whereas both Clark and Boyer (1993) and Jagoe and Serpell (1996) found a decrease in behavioural problems following obedience training. Finally, Hiby et al. (2004), looked at the relationship between training methods and behavioural problems and found that owners of dogs trained 0376-6357/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2008.02.022