Fragmentation of work activity as a multi-dimensional construct and its association with ICT, employment and sociodemographic characteristics Bayarma Alexander * , Dick Ettema, Martin Dijst Urban and Regional Research Centre Utrecht (URU), Faculty of Geographical Sciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80115, 3508TC Utrecht, The Netherlands article info Keywords: Work activity Information and communication technology (ICT) Fragmentation abstract A potential effect of ICTs is that they alleviate the traditional space-time constraints of paidwork activities and allow for the decomposition of work into multiple segments of subtasks, which can be performed at different times and/or locations. Such separation of activities into discrete pieces is commonly termed the fragmentation of activity. Regrettably, only limited empirical evidence is available on the fragmentation of work activity and the factors that contribute to it. The goal of this paper is to extend the previous work in the activity fragmentation arena in three ways: (i) to operationalize measures of spatial fragmentation and reformulate some of the temporal fragmentation measures for the specific purpose of investigating the fragmentation of the work activity; (ii) to analyse fragmentation not only in terms of the individual indicators, but also as a multi-dimensional construct including all dimensions of spatial and temporal fragmentation collectively; (iii) to test a detailed set of ICT-related, workrelated, and sociodemographic variables to identify the factors that are crucial in the occurrence of the fragmentation of the work activ- ity. The study shows that there is heterogeneity in the fragmentation of work. Three internally homog- enous patterns of fragmentation, which diverge in the degree of fragmentation, are identified: (1) a less temporally and spatially fragmented work pattern; (2) a less spatially and more temporally frag- mented work pattern; (3) a more spatially and temporally fragmented work pattern. The multiple discriminant analysis suggests that ICT variables and work-related variables as well as personal-house- hold attributes are associated with the fragmentation of work. However, the degree of association differs considerably among representative patterns of fragmentation. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction It is a common belief that the advancement of modern informa- tion and communication technologies (ICTs) such as broadband and mobile internet connection, phone, and laptop has brought changes in the way business is conducted and work is done. New forms of working such as telecommuting, part-day home-working, commuting-based and mobile-based work have already emerged (Pendyala et al., 1991; Mannering and Mokhtarian, 1995; Koenig et al., 1996; Vilhelmson and Thulin, 2001; Lyons and Haddad, 2008). A potential effect of ICTs is that they alleviate the traditional space-time constraints of paid work activities and increase the range of locations and times available for conducting these activi- ties (Couclelis, 2000; Dijst, 2004). For instance, work can be trans- ferred more easily from the workplace to the home (using a wired telephone and internet) or while travelling (using a mobile phone or laptop computer with wireless internet connections). This relax- ation of spatial and temporal constraints allows for the decompo- sition of work into multiple segments of subtasks that can be performed at different times and/or locations. Such separation of activities into discrete pieces is commonly termed the fragmenta- tion of activity (Couclelis, 2000). ICT and the fragmentation of work activities potentially have an impact on the use of the daily urban system in terms of the inten- sity and timing of the use of facilities and transport infrastructure. For instance, telecommuting might lead to a decrease in the fre- quency of commuting. Similarly, the spatial fragmentation of work activities may lead to an increase in travel distances. Activity frag- mentation has furthermore been predicted to result in increased travel demand and, although traffic during conventional peak hours might be relieved, increased road congestion during what are now considered non-peak hours might ensue. New traffic bot- tlenecks might also evolve. More dynamic and fragmented activ- ity-travel patterns may reflect changes in people’s preferences resulting, for example, in new requirements for dwellings (with preferences possibly changing from living near the main employ- ment location to living close to recreational facilities), workplaces (with flexible workstations), and public transportation (with broadband wireless Internet access in both train stations and the trains themselves) (Alexander et al., submitted for publication). It is therefore essential for urban and transport planners to know 0966-6923/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.05.010 * Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 (0) 30 253 4863; fax: +31 (0) 30 253 2037. E-mail address: b.alexandr@geo.uu.nl (B. Alexander). Journal of Transport Geography 18 (2010) 55–64 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Transport Geography journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jtrangeo