Crop-raiding by wild vertebrates: the farmer’s perspective in an agricultural community in western Uganda (Keywords: farmers, mammals, birds, crop-raiding, crop losses, Africa) CATHERINE M. HILL Department of Anthropology, 46 Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HN, UK Abstract. The aim of this paper is to determine the extent to which wild vertebrates are perceived to damage crops, and to identify factors that help predict farmers’ vulnerability to these animals. Data were collected using questionnaires and informal interviews in a farming community in western Uganda. Approximately 70% of farmers interviewed are wholly dependent on agriculture for their subsistence, either as farmers and/or as seasonal agricultural labourers. Farmers consider crop-raiding by wild animals, particularly baboons and pigs, to be a major source of crop losses. Susceptibility to crop-raiding is influenced by a number of factors including proximity of fields to forest boundary and types of crops grown. The farmers’ expressed fear of baboons and pigs may truly reflect the scale of damage these animals can cause, or it may be influenced by baboons’ and pigs’ perceived ability to harm or even kill humans. 1. Introduction Over the years there has been a considerable amount of research carried out on farming systems, including the devel- opment of genetically improved crop varieties, many features of agronomy, and aspects of crop protection related to diseases and insect pests (Jones et al ., 1978). There has also been research into traditional farming systems, and experimentation within those subsistence systems by farmers is a long established practice (Richards, 1985, 1986). However, there is little information available as to the scale of impact of vertebrate pests on standing crops, or the strategies used by farmers to circumvent or minimize such crop damage. Yet the few studies there are confirm that mammals and birds are potentially very destructive of food crops (Sharland, 1989; Ngure, 1992; Newark et al ., 1993), and that farming households may have to invest considerable time and energy in protecting their crops from predation by wild animals (Conklin, 1957; Huybens and Tollens, 1989; Ruthenberg, 1980). It is generally accepted that, in Africa at least, while conflicts between agriculturalists and wildlife have always existed, the degree of conflict has escalated in the last 30 years or so with increasing amounts of land being put under cultivation. The little information available is generally limited to studies of crop damage by elephants in both Africa (Damiba and Ables, 1993; Taylor, 1993; Thouless, 1994) and Asia (Mishra, 1971; Blair et al ., 1979; Sukumar, 1990) and by rodents (Mill, 1993). Much of the interest and concern about elephants and the crop-damage they cause has been written in the light of elephants as an important conservation issue. In parts of West and East Africa and Asia, elephants are reported to cause considerable amounts of damage to the crops of both subsistence farmers and commercial growers (Blair et al ., 1979). Where elephants crop-raid they are likely to be the most feared animal because of their ability to eat and trample huge quantities of crops in a single raid. Without access to advanced, and thus expensive, control techniques, it is very difficult for farmers to protect their fields from these animals. Elephants are also greatly feared because they are responsible for a significant number of cases of human injury and death (Taylor, 1993). There has been increasing concern by the conservationist lobby to promote research into technologies and techniques for keeping elephants and cultivators apart. In some parts, particularly East Africa, sophisticated technologies, including extensive electric fencing and huge ditches have proved successful to a degree (Mishra, 1971). However, these methods are beyond the means of the majority of farmers at risk from elephants. Field rodents are commonly reported to be a serious pest of rice throughout South East Asia. Estimates of yield reduction of approximately 20% have been recorded from Pakistan (Greaves et al ., 1977; Fulk et al ., 1981). However, such estimates of the amount of damage caused by these animals varies according to species, crop and location, and range between 0×7% (Khokhar and Ali Rizri, 1991) to in excess of 50% (Wagle, 1927; Wood, 1971). Yet, very little is known worldwide about the amounts and value of damage that rodents inflict annually on crops, particularly in Africa (Rennison and Buckle, 1988). Notwith- standing, the available evidence suggests that rodents can contribute significantly to crop losses of subsistence farmers throughout Africa (Delany, 1972; Nandwa, 1973; Taylor, 1968). Very little has been written about farmers’ knowledge of vertebrate crop pests and their impact on standing crops, or existing crop protection methods, yet this information is of great importance to the development of effective integrated pest management strategies (Adesina et al ., 1994). It is becoming increasingly clear that there is a very real need to understand indigenous or local knowledge systems in order to help adapt and promote technologies appropriate to local situations (DeWalt, 1994). Because local technologies and techniques are specific to particular environments, socio-economic situa- tions and cultures, it is necessary that research be site, and case, specific. But by building up a series of case studies of different ecological and cultural environments it may be possible to adapt, combine and transfer successful elements of individual pest management coping strategies across different scenarios. A further important consideration is that while there is increasingly greater acknowledgement and recognition that the failure of many different development programmes results from 0967-0874/97 $12.00 Ó 1997 Taylor & Francis Ltd INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEST MANAGEMENT, 1997, 43(1) 77 ± 84