Are Actual and Perceived Intellectual Self-enhancers Evaluated Differently by Social Perceivers? MICHAEL DUFNER 1 * , JAAP DENISSEN 2 , CONSTANTINE SEDIKIDES 3 , MAARTEN VAN ZALK 4,5 , WIM H. J. MEEUS 2,5 and MARCEL VAN AKEN 6 1 Department of Psychology, Humboldt-University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany 2 Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands 3 School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK 4 Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden 5 Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands 6 Department of Psychology, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands Abstract: Do actual and perceived self-enhancement entail differing social impressions (i.e. interpersonal evaluations)? Actual self-enhancement represents unduly positive self-views, as gauged by an objective criterion (in this case, IQ scores), whereas perceived self-enhancement involves the extent to which an individual is seen by informants (i.e. peers or observers) as self-enhancing. In an online survey (N = 337), a laboratory experiment (N = 75), and a round-robin study (N = 183), we tested the effects of actual and perceived intellectual self-enhancement on (informant-rated) emotional stability, social attractiveness, and social influence. Actual self-enhancers were rated as emotionally stable, socially attractive, and socially influential. High perceived self-enhancers were judged as socially influential, whereas low-to-moderate perceived self-enhancers were deemed emotionally stable and socially attractive. Privately entertained, illusory positive (even extreme) self-beliefs confer social benefits, whereas being perceived as self-enhancing buys social influence at the cost of being despised. Copyright © 2013 European Association of Personality Psychology Key words: self-enhancement; person perception; likability; social influence; emotional stability Most individuals overestimate their strengths and under- estimate or neglect their weaknesses (Alicke & Sedikides, 2009, 2011). But what are the social benefits and costs of self-enhancement? What are the social impressions that self-enhancers convey? These questions carry both theoretical and practical relevance. If self-enhancement entails substantive social benefits (i.e. positive impressions), this may imply that accurate self- perception(i.e. self-assessment; Gregg, Sedikides, & Gebauer, 2011; Sedikides & Strube, 1997) is largely unnecessary for, if not occasionally damaging to, interpersonal functioning. This may also imply that individuals derive social and organi- zational advantages when they hold or aim for positive, rather than accurate, self-views. IMPRESSIONS THAT SELF-ENHANCERS GIVE OFF: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Three theoretical perspectives make divergent predictions about the link between self-enhancement and psychological adjustment, including the social impressions (i.e. interpersonal evaluations) that self-enhancement entails. These are the positive illusions, maladaptive illusions, and optimal margin of illusion perspectives. According to the positive illusions perspective (Taylor & Brown, 1988; Taylor, Lerner, Sherman, Sage, & McDowell, 2003), self-enhancement triggers favourable interpersonal evaluations. Thus, self-enhancing individ- uals would be judged by informants (i.e. peers or observers) as psychologically healthy, likable, and influential. According to the maladaptive illusions per- spective (Colvin, Block, & Funder, 1995; John & Robins, 1994), realistic self-perception is a necessary prerequisite for healthy interpersonal functioning. Thus, a self-enhancing individual would be judged by informants as less psychologically healthy, likable, and influential than an individual with an accurate self-view. Finally, according to the optimal margin of illusion perspective (Baumeister, 1989; McAllister, Baker, Mannes, Stewart, & Sutherland, 2002), low-to-moderate self-enhancement triggers more favourable interpersonal evaluations than either high self-enhancement or self-effacement. Thus, an individual who self-enhances, but not highly so, would be judged by informants as more psychologically healthy, likable, and influential than either a highly self-enhancing or self-depreciating individual. *Correspondence to: Michael Dufner, Department of Psychology, Humboldt- University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany. E-mail: dufnermi@googlemail.com European Journal of Personality, Eur. J. Pers. 27: 621–633 (2013) Published online 11 July 2013 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/per.1934 Received 11 February 2013 Revised 3 June 2013, Accepted 4 June 2013 Copyright © 2013 European Association of Personality Psychology