Family Advocates’ Perspectives on the Early Academic Success of Children Born to Low-Income Adolescent Mothers* Tom Luster,** Laura Bates, Marcia Vandenbelt, and M. Angela Nievar Qualitative analyses were conducted to examine family factors related to individual differences in the early school success of children born to low-income adolescent mothers from the perspective of paraprofessional family advocates. These families were participants in a 5-year family support program. Achievement test scores and teacher ratings were used to identify the most successful and least successful students in first grade. Interviews with the advocates about the life experiences of children in each of these groups revealed differences between them in the areas of caregiving practices, maternal characteristics, child characteristics, and contextual sources of stress and support. Given that family service providers are rarely used as informants in this way, the possible strengths and limitations of this approach are discussed. T he transition to school is an important developmental transition for children (Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994; Entwisle & Alexander, 1998). Children who get off to a good start in elementary school tend to do better on later assessments of achievement and school performance than do their peers who struggle early on, and ultimately, they tend to obtain higher levels of education (Schweinhart, Barnes, Weikart, Barnett, & Epstein, 1993). Several longitudinal studies show that children’s performance in kindergarten or first grade is predictive of high school completion (Alexander, Entwisle, & Horsey, 1997; Ensminger & Slusarcick, 1992; Luster & McAdoo, 1996; Schweinhart et al.). In the early elementary grades, children are developing attitudes about school and about their ability to succeed in that setting (Entwisle & Alexander, 1998). They also are acquiring basic academic competencies (e.g., learning to read) that lay the foundation for later school success. Moreover, in the earliest grades, children begin accumulating a school file of grades, test scores, attendance records, and behavioral assessments that may affect the expectations that teachers in later grades have for these children. This qualitative study focuses on family influences on the academic success of first-grade children born to low-income adolescent mothers, a group identified as at risk for school fail- ure (Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn, & Morgan, 1987; Whitman, Borkowski, Keogh, & Weed, 2001). A disproportionate number of children born to adolescent mothers perform poorly on mea- sures of achievement, are retained in grade, and eventually drop out of school. However, there is considerable variability in the outcomes of children born to these mothers (Dubow & Luster, 1990; Furstenberg et al.). Many children who are considered to be in high-risk environments do well in school (Clark, 1990; Jarrett, 1999; Wang & Gordon, 1994). What happens in the years prior to school entry that may influence how successful these children are in the early elementary grades? Specifically, how do the family experiences of children who are successful in the early elementary grades differ from the family experiences of children who are struggling in the early elementary grades? To examine family influences on the early school success of at-risk children, we interviewed paraprofessional family advo- cates who worked with the families for up to 5 years—from the prenatal period until the children were about to enter kindergar- ten. Each interview focused either on a child who was (a) doing relatively well in first grade, based on test scores and teacher ratings, or (b) was struggling in school. Given that the family advocates had worked with these families for most of the chil- dren’s lives, we explored their perceptions about why some children were faring better than others. To the best of our know- ledge, this is the first study to use family service providers as informants in this way. Theoretical Perspective and the Interview Protocol An ecological perspective was used as a theoretical frame- work to guide the development of the interview protocol (Belsky, 1984; Bronfenbrenner, 1999). The interviews focused on experiences in the family home, which is one of the key microsystems where children spend much of their time prior to school entry. Parents are typically children’s first teachers and help to prepare children for their experiences outside the home, including school (White, 1990). They create children’s first learning environments in the home, and they make decisions about children’s experiences in other settings (e.g., whether the child will attend preschool). Children’s experiences in the home differ markedly, and it is likely that some children are better prepared for the transition to school than others (Bradley & Corwyn, 1999; McLoyd, 1998). The extent to which parents exhibit the types of behaviors that are thought to foster early school success likely depends on characteristics of the parent (e.g., psychological well-being, per- sonality, educational level), characteristics of the child (e.g., temperament, health status), and contextual sources of stress and support (Belsky, 1984). Belsky’s theoretical model and sub- sequent research by others (Bornstein, 1995; Bronfenbrenner, 1999; Luster & Okagaki, 1993) reinforce the importance of looking at parenting practices and the family environment from an ecological perspective. Based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1999) ecological framework and prior research, we expected proximal processes to influence *An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN, April 20, 2001. This research was supported by the Mott Children’s Health Center in Flint, MI, and the Spencer Foundation. The data presented, the statements made, and the views expressed are solely the responsibility of the authors. We would like to express our appreciation to the young mothers, the children, and the teachers who participated in this study. We would especially like to acknowledge the family advocates: Ronda Jackson, Bettie Johnson, Cynthia Jones, Katherine Kenebrew, Robyn Swanson, Marva Williams, and Robin Williams. **Address correspondence to Dr. Tom Luster, Department of Family and Child Ecology, 13 Human Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1030; (luster@msu.edu). Key Words: achievement, adolescent mothers, elementary school, paraprofessionals, parenting. (Family Relations, 2004, 53, 68–77) 2004, Vol. 53, No. 1 Family Relations