Paola Villa University of Colorado Museum, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0315, U.S.A. E-mail: villap@stripe.colorado.edu Francesco d’Errico UMR 5808 du CNRS, Universite ´ Bordeaux 1, Avenue des Faculte ´s, 33405 Talence, France. E-mail: f.derrico@iquat.u-bordeux.fr Received 13 October 2000 Revision received 30 January 2001 and accepted 23 March 2001 Keywords: bone and ivory tools, Lower and Middle Paleolithic, microscopy, taphonomy, spear points. Bone and ivory points in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Europe The existence of shaped bone and ivory points, to be used as awls or with wooden hafts, has been suggested for the Lower Paleolithic sites of Torralba and Ambrona and for several Middle Paleolithic sites, such as Vaufrey, Combe Grenal, Pech de l’Aze ´ I and Camiac. The use of hafted bone and ivory points would imply a spear armature technology similar to that well documented in the Upper Paleolithic, often considered an innovation introduced to Europe by anatomically modern humans. The controversial ivory points from the two Spanish sites, whose fracture morphology is considered natural by G. Haynes (1991), have been reanalyzed, checking for putative traces of human manufacture and utilization as described by Howell & Freeman (1983), i.e., polish, flaking of stem, ground edges, striations from manufacture and contact with a haft or binding. We have been able to study 19 new proboscidean tusk tips from the ongoing Ambrona excavations by a Spanish team. For these and nine other Middle Paleolithic bone and antler points we use optical and SEM microscope analysis, tapho- nomic analysis, comparative observations of Upper Paleolithic bone points, experimental observations of manufacturing traces, modern tusk samples, and data on several bone and antler pseudo-points from carnivore accumulations. We show that none of the objects we have studied can be interpreted as an intentionally shaped point. The absence of hafted bone points in the Middle Paleolithic of Europe is contrasted with evidence of the use of hafted stone points since OIS 5 or earlier in Eurasia and Africa. We suggest that the absence of organic spear armatures in the Middle Paleolithic is not due to a deficiency in the technology of Neandertals but may be tied to the organizational strategies of the hunters and to patterns of game choice and capture.  2001 Academic Press Journal of Human Evolution (2001) 41, 69–112 doi:10.1006/jhev.2001.0479 Available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on Introduction We know that bone was used as a raw material for implements in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. This is now well docu- mented by the discovery in the early 1980s of Acheulian-type bifaces, made by flaking elephant long bones, in three Middle Pleistocene sites in the Latium region of Central Italy, i.e., Castel di Guido, Fontana Ranuccio and Malagrotta (Cassoli et al., 1982; Radmilli, 1985; Biddittu & Bruni, 1987; Radmilli & Boschian, 1996). The Castel di Guido and Fontana Ranuccio specimens, in particular, show multiple scars on both faces (more than ten on one face) with clear negative bulbs of percussion in an orderly pattern and symmetrical, naturally improbable, shapes. The extent and fre- quency of flake scars on these specimens are not to be found in naturally broken elephant bones documented by Haynes (Haynes, 1991; Lyman, 1994) nor in bones broken for marrow extraction. A few more artefacts on elephant bones with less distinctive shapes but with multiple invasive removals 0047–2484/01/080069+44$35.00/0  2001 Academic Press