Enhancing management effectiveness of environmental protected areas, Thailand Suvaluck Satumanatpan a, * , Pisase Senawongse b , Weranit Thansuporn c , Hugh Kirkman d a Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakorn Pathom 73170, Thailand b 1500 Charansanitwong 75, Bangplud, Bangkok 10110, Thailand c Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, Praram 6, Payathai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand d 5a Garden Grove, Seaholme, Vic 3018, Australia article info Article history: Available online abstract In Thailand, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) has been carried out since 1992, through Environ- mental Protected Areas (EPAs) that are used in coastal planning and management for most popular tourist coasts and islands. This paper examines the effectiveness of Phetchaburi (PB) and Prachuap Kirikhan (PK) EPAs. The study finds the processes and results are not as comprehensive and sustainable as wished. Considerable environmental degradation, i.e., coastal erosion, poor water quality and degraded natural resources were found widely along the EPAs’ coasts. The implications of PB and PK EPAs within an ICM framework were analyzed. The study findings indicated the important issues to be resolved include: inefficient intersectoral and intergovernmental integration within and between the multi-governments, weak commitments to financial and human resources, weak leadership and law enforcement capability and limited participatory and adaptive management through the stages of the ICM cycle. Moving forward requires specific actions, commitment, strong leadership and effective cooperation of key stakeholders. Continued building of environmental awareness on the impacts of environmental degradation to people and the economy is also needed. This ambitious project differs from most others in its coverage and the large number of communities and governance bodies that need to reach agreement. We suggest a number of recommendations that apply generally to developing countries wishing to conserve biological diversity and use resources sustainably on coasts with multi- stakeholders and uses. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Developing countries in Southeast Asia, Africa and South America have an enormous task in attempting to conserve marine environments and sustain exploited resources. These countries mostly have priorities in developing, reducing poverty and sup- plying food and commodities to their people. The challenges of marine and coastal environmental sustain- ability are many and diverse in Thailand, where coastal and marine planning has been practiced since 1992. Focusing on coastal zoning, Thailand has a variety of systems in place, including ecological conservation for mangrove areas, coral reefs, fisheries, national marine parks, and environmental protected areas (EPAs). Sustainable development of coastal and marine resources needs Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) as a dynamic process based on intersectoral, intergovernmental, land-sea and science-based management (GESAMP, 1996). Through long experience of ICM practices there are major factors that are likely to have considerable impact on ICM sustainability including: integration and Abbreviations: BOD, Biological Oxygen Demand; CCM, Committee to Control and Monitor; CEA, Committee for Environmental Assessment; CPUE, Catch Per Unit Effort; DH, Department of Harbors; DIW, Department of Industrial Work; DMCR, Department for Marine and Coastal Resources; DPIM, Department of Primary In- dustries and Mines; ECC, Environmental Carrying Capacity; EIA, Environmental Impact Assessment; EPA, Environmental Protected Area; FCB, Faecal Coliform Bacteria; GESAMP, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection.; ICM, Integrated Coastal Management; IEE, Initial Envi- ronmental Evaluation; NEF, National Environmental Fund; NEQA, National Envi- ronmental Quality Act 1992; NPO, National Park Office; ONEP, Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning; PB, Petchaburi; PEO, Provincial Environment Office; PFO, Provincial Fisheries Office; PMO, Provincial Mangrove Office; PPH, Provincial Public Health; PK, Prachuap Kirikhan; PWO, Public Work Office; REO, Regional Environment Office; SEA, Strategic Environmental Assessment. * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ66 817007512, 66 2 4415000; fax: þ66 2 4419510. E-mail addresses: suvaluck.nat@mahidol.ac.th, ajyomm@yahoo.com (S. Satumanatpan). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ocean & Coastal Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman 0964-5691/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.12.001 Ocean & Coastal Management 89 (2014) 1e10