The substitutability of external control and self-control q Ayelet Fishbach a, * , Yaacov Trope b a Graduate School of Business, The University of Chicago, 5807 South Woodlawn Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA b New York University, USA Received 21 November 2003; revised 15 June 2004 Available online 21 August 2004 Abstract Three experiments offered participants the opportunity to undertake an activity that had long-term benefits but either small or large short-term costs. The experiments investigated how self-control efforts to undertake the activity are affected by real or primed externally imposed controls. Two forms of self-control were assessed: bolstering the value of the offered activity and self-imposed penalties for failure to undertake it. The results showed that greater short-term costs elicited more self-control efforts when exter- nally imposed controls were absent and less self-control efforts when externally imposed controls were present. Both externally imposed controls and self-control efforts prevented short-term costs from affecting participantsÕ intention to undertake the activity. The results were interpreted as suggesting that externally imposed control and self-control are substitutable means for pursuing activities with long-term benefits and short-term costs. Ó 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Introduction In many real life situations, the attainment of long- term goals comes at the expense of short-term outcomes. For example, the discomfort that is often associated with dieting, physical exercise, or undergoing a medical check-up is a price people have to pay in order to attain their long-term health goals. Similarly, suppressing a de- sire to retaliate may be necessary in order to prevent an escalating interpersonal conflict, and performing boring drills may be necessary for acquiring a valuable skill. A considerable amount of research has shown that short- term outcomes sometimes tempt people to act against their long-term interests (Baumeister, Heatherton, & Tice, 1994; Dhar & Wertenbroch, 2000; Loewenstein, 1996; Rachlin, 1997; Thaler, 1991). There is also re- search showing that in response to such temptations, people may engage in self-control efforts designed to protect their long-term interests (Ariely & Wertenbroch, 2002; Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997; Fishbach, Friedman, & Kruglanski, 2003; Freitas, Liberman, & Higgins, 2002; Gollwitzer & Moskowitz, 1996; Kivetz & Simonson, 2002; Kuhl, 1986; Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; Trope & Fishbach, 2000; Wertenbroch, 1998). PeopleÕs exposure and response to temptation do not occur in a social vacuum. Social partners, groups, and organizations may institute incentives, sanctions, and rules that are designed to help individuals overcome temptations. Media censorship and laws prohibiting substance abuse and gambling are common examples of externally imposed controls. Organizations may encourage and even require their members to maintain their health by refraining from cigarette smoking, engaging in physical exercise, and undergoing periodical medical check-ups. At a more informal level, individuals sometime criticize their friends or family members for eating unhealthy food or excessively watching TV. So- cial psychologists have studied the psychological conse- quences of externally imposed controls from a variety of www.elsevier.com/locate/jesp Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41 (2005) 256–270 0022-1031/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.07.002 q The research reported in this article was supported by financial Support from the University of Chicago, Graduate School of Business, to the first author and by NIMH Grant #1R01MH59030-01A1and NSF Grant # SBR-9808675 to the second author. * Corresponding author. E-mail address: ayelet.fishbach@ChicagoGSB.edu (A. Fishbach).