Exploring Entitlement as a Moderator and Mediator of the Relationship Between Masculine Gender Role Conflict and Men’s Body Esteem Jonathan P. Schwartz University of Houston Tracy L. Tylka Ohio State University Extant literature has suggested that entitlement stemming from masculine gender role socialization may moderate and/or mediate the relationship between gender role con- flict and intrapersonal variables. This study tested this assertion with 236 college men, with body esteem serving as the intrapersonal variable. Results revealed that both conceptualizations of entitlement (i.e., self-assertive and narcissistic) moderated the relationships between two components of gender role conflict (i.e., success/power/ competition and work-family conflict) and body esteem, with self-assertive entitlement (i.e., a more adaptive form) buffering these relationships and narcissistic entitlement (i.e., a more maladaptive form) strengthening these relationships. Narcissistic entitlement also strengthened the relationship between restricted affection between men and body esteem. In addition, self-assertive entitlement mediated the relationships between (a) restricted emo- tionality and body esteem, and (b) work-family conflict and body esteem. Keywords: gender role conflict, body image, entitlement, college men As researchers have begun to recognize that body image disturbance is common among men, they have started to initiate much research in this area. They have found that, like women’s, men’s psychological well being is linked to their body esteem (Cafri, Strauss, & Thompson, 2002; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004). For instance, men’s drive for muscularity and use of destructive muscle-building substances such as anabolic- androgenic steroids, testosterone precursors, beta-2 agonists, human growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, stimulants, diuretics, and dietary supplements are connected to and reflect men’s low body esteem (Bahrke, 2007; Vartanian, Giant, & Passino, 2001). Over the last three decades, societal messages that equate masculinity with muscularity have become more prevalent (Leit, Gray, & Pope, 2001; Pope, Olivardia, Gruber, & Borowiecki, 1999). As a result, men may be internalizing such messages, becoming dissatisfied with their bodies, and desiring increased muscularity to ap- pear masculine (Tylka, Bergeron, & Schwartz, 2005). It therefore has become increasingly im- portant to detect risk factors associated with men’s low body esteem. Because masculinity is associ- ated with muscularity, men who internalize soci- etal norms of masculinity may experience lower body esteem if they perceive themselves to be inconsistent with the mesomorphic ideal body type presented in the media. Although some studies have suggested that masculinity is negatively related to body dissat- isfaction (Sondhaus, Kurtz, & Strube, 2001; Wade & Cooper, 1999), these studies operation- alized masculinity as a set of gender role traits (Forbes, Adams-Curtis, Rade, & Jaberg, 2001; Good, Wallace, & Borst, 1994). Subsequent research has questioned the validity of gender role trait instruments, suggesting that they mea- sure the global personality dimension of instru- mentality rather than internalized gender role socialization (Betz, 1995; Good et al., 1994). Gender role socialization specifically reflects social pressures to equate masculinity with characteristics like strength, power, and muscu- larity (O’Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Jonathan P. Schwartz, Counseling Psychology Program, University of Houston; and Tracy L. Tylka, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- dressed to Jonathan P. Schwartz, Counseling Psychology Program, University of Houston, 491 Farish Hall, Houston, TX 77204. E-mail: jschwartz@uh.edu Psychology of Men & Masculinity Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association 2008, Vol. 9, No. 2, 67– 81 1524-9220/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/1524-9220.9.2.67 67