Profiles of relational permanence at 22: Variability in parental supports and outcomes among young adults with foster care histories Gretta Cushing a, ⁎, Gina Miranda Samuels b , Ben Kerman a,1 a Annie E. Casey Foundation, 127 Church Street, New Haven, CT 06510, United States b University of Chicago, School of Social Service Administration, 969 E. 60th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, United States abstract article info Article history: Received 21 September 2013 Received in revised form 2 January 2014 Accepted 2 January 2014 Available online 24 January 2014 Keywords: Foster care Relational permanence Transition to adulthood Parental support Alumni of foster care are at considerable risk for transitioning to adulthood without supportive parental relation- ships due to significant disruptions of these relationships and histories of maltreatment. This study investigated key dimensions of parental support (care, dependability and financial support) in relationships with birth par- ents and parental figures among young adults who received foster care and exited to diverse permanency out- comes. Using Latent Class Analysis, four groups were identified indicating young adults who had (a) connections to both birth parents and parental figures; (b) minimal connections; (c) some connection to parental figure; and (d) some connection to birth parent. Young adults who reported connections with both birth parents and parental figures reported better outcomes, while those who reported minimal connections had least optimal outcomes. An examination of antecedent characteristics indicated a modest role of legal permanence. Results here highlight a need for inclusive child welfare practices that honor the family fluidity that foster youth experi- ence and privilege relationship quality over legal permanence, particularly for older youth in foster care. Greater methodological rigor in the assessment and study of relational permanence and its potential to offset risks among maltreated youth in foster care is called for. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Early adulthood is a critical time in development as youth encounter challenges requiring greater autonomy and independence, yet still need emotional and financial support from parents. Relationships with par- ents involving warmth, dependability and support have inherent value and have been demonstrated to confer benefits to offspring across the lifespan. Alumni of foster care have typically encountered distur- bance and disruption in parental relationships at critical points in devel- opment, raising important questions regarding their access to, and quality of, parental supports during early adulthood. Child welfare practice and policy has long recognized the value of “permanence” in parental figures, however, researchers have started examining “relational permanence” as a meaningful way to understand important but often overlooked qualities of relationships between foster youth and their parental figures (Samuels, 2008; Semanchin Jones & LaLiberte, 2013). This study uses relational permanence as a conceptual frame to examine the diversity of relationships alumni of foster care may have with parental figures in multiple dimensions, and the poten- tial importance of these relationships in providing support during young adulthood. 1.1. Parental support in early adulthood Among youth without histories of foster care, the critical importance of parental support during adolescence and young adulthood has been demonstrated in multiple domains. As adolescents and young adults face the developmental task of relinquishing dependency on parents, establishing autonomy and forming unique identities (Arnett, 2001), relationships with parents may seem to diminish in salience. However, the continued need and desire to depend on parents (or a parent figure) facilitates healthy adjustment in early adulthood (Aquilino, 2006; Grotevant & Cooper, 1986; Hill & Holmbeck, 1986; Ryan & Lynch, 1989). Qualities of parenting relationships including availability, warmth, support and involvement, typically of long duration, impact multiple domains of young adult functioning ranging from overall well-being and self-esteem to interpersonal competence in establishing quality relationships (Berzonsky, 2004; Kenny & Sirin, 2006; Masten et al., 2004; Powers, Hauser, & Kilner, 1989; Smits et al., 2008; Tubman & Lerner, 1994; Van Wei, Bogt, & Raaijmakers, 2002). The ability to successfully navigate increasing independence during emerging adulthood requires the capacity to trust, and form mutually Children and Youth Services Review 39 (2014) 73–83 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Lakeside Consulting, LLC, 266 Post Road East, Westport, CT 06880, United States. Tel.: +1 203 247 1301. E-mail addresses: grettacushing@gmail.com (G. Cushing), gmsamuels@uchicago.edu (G.M. Samuels), b.kerman@atlanticphilanthropies.org (B. Kerman). 1 Present address: The Atlantic Philanthropies; 75 Varick Street; New York, NY, United States. 0190-7409/$ – see front matter © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.01.001 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Children and Youth Services Review journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth