Temporal and financial risk assessments: How time and money constrain shopper behavior and influence purchase solutions Robert Paul Jones a,n , Kerri M. Camp a , Ann E. Fairhurst b a The University of Texas at Tyler, 3900 University Blvd., Tyler, TX 75799, United States b University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States article info Article history: Received 13 November 2014 Received in revised form 8 June 2015 Accepted 1 August 2015 Keywords: Convenience Price Constraint Time Money Financial Temporal Shopper Marketing Value Co-creation abstract Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to better understand the constraints that make shopper behavior unique from consumers and how those constraints manifest themselves in retail purchase solutions. Design/methodology/approach: This study utilized value laddering and phenomenological research methodologies to explore the data gathered from 39 interviews of male and female grocery shoppers. Findings: This research examines the perceived constraints on shopper resources. The data reveal that all shoppers perceive themselves to be constrained by both finances and time. These findings hold across all income, age, and employment strata. As a result, price and convenience no longer function as seg- mentation tools. Instead, pricing and convenience become thresholds setting shopper “floor” expecta- tions for retailers, service providers and brands. Research limitations/implications: This study was limited to grocery shoppers largely located in the southern US. Future research could expand on the variety of product categories and conditions explored, along with the cultural diversity of the participants. Practical implications: Shoppers' broader view of purchase relationships reduces the importance of transactional savings. Shopper consideration of total market basket value, allows for more focus on services and relationships to drive shopper value. Shopper constraints can result in purchase outcomes different than what consumer research would indicate. Originality/value: This research is the first to examine elements which may constrain shoppers, parti- cularly temporal and financial risk assessments, and how they impact shopper purchase solutions. & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Historically, the focus of marketing research has been on con- sumer behavior and the consumption process. More recently, marketing literature has identified characteristics unique to shoppers, who are often not the actual consumer of the product purchased. These characteristics are important to the growing field of shopper marketing which Shankar (2011) defines as “the planning and execution of all marketing activities that influence a shopper along, and beyond, the entire path-to-purchase, from the point at which the motivation to shop first emerges through to purchase, consumption, repurchase, and recommendation.” Shopper marketing, driven by access to shopping behavior data, is becoming one of the dominant strategies used by retailers and brands (Flint et al., 2014). Understanding what drives the dis- tinctive characteristics of shoppers is critical for retailers and brands to provide optimal shopper solutions. Yet currently, little academic research has focused on identifying the unique char- acteristics which distinguish shopper behavior. Recent research indicates that shoppers (e.g., those actively engaged in purchasing) think differently than those engaged in other parts of the consumption process (e.g., consumers) (Bell et al., 2011). Further research indicates that shoppers follow a unique “path-to-purchase” distinct from that of a consumer (Flint et al., 2014). The path-to-purchase has been described as initiating with an occasion based need awareness and culminating at the point-of-purchase (Jones 2012). Differences arising from this al- ternate shopper path result in purchase behavior outcomes that traditional consumer behavior would not have anticipated (Flint et al., 2014). Once an individual engages the path-to-purchase known as “shopper mode” (Shankar et al., 2011), they begin to exhibit behavior which is no longer consistent with established consumer theory. For example, traditional consumer theory fo- cuses on the consumer and their consumption habits, whereas shopper marketing focuses on the individual currently engaged in Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2015.08.002 0969-6989/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. n Corresponding author. Fax: þ1 903 566 7372. E-mail address: rjones@uttyler.edu (R.P. Jones). Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 27 (2015) 154–163