Echocardiographic assessment of cardiac structure and function in great apes: a practical guide R. SHAVE 1 *, D. OXBOROUGH 2 , J. SOMAUROO 3 , Y. FELTRER 4 , T. STRIKE 4 , A. ROUTH 5 , S. CHAPMAN 6 , S. REDROBE 6 , L. THOMPSON 6 , S. UNWIN 7 , G. SAYERS 8 , H. MURPHY 9 , G. RAPOPORT 10 & E. STÖHR 1 1 Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cyncoed Campus, Cardiff CF23 6XD, United Kingdom, 2 Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 2AJ, United Kingdom, 3 Countess of Chester Hospital, Heath Park, Chester CH2 1UL, United Kingdom, 4 Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, United Kingdom, 5 Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Les Augrès Manor, La Profonde Rue, Trinity, Jersey JE3 5BP, Channel Islands, 6 Twycross Zoo, East Midland Zoological Society, Atherstone, Warwickshire CV9 3PX, United Kingdom, 7 Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, Chester CH2 1LH, United Kingdom, 8 Paignton Zoo Enviromental Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, Devon TQ4 7EU, United Kingdom, 9 Zoo Atlanta, 800 Cherokee Avenue, Atlanta, Georgia 30315, USA, and 10 College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, 501D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA E-mail: rshave@cardiffmet.ac.uk Cardiac disease has been implicated as a leading cause of death in captive great apes. Trans-thoracic echocardi- ography provides clinically relevant information that may help differentiate between the myriad of different heart diseases and disorders, guide treatment and aid the management of great apes with underlying cardiac pathology. The purpose of this paper is to provide an outline of the procedures and methodologies required to conduct a thorough trans-thoracic echocardiogram of great apes under general anaesthesia. Basic logistical considerations are discussed before a detailed descrip- tion of the procedures required for the assessment of overall cardiac structure and function. Using a thorough systematic approach, it is our belief that veterinary pro- fessionals may be better able to diagnose, treat and manage captive great apes with, or at risk of developing heart disease. Key-words: cardiac function; diagnosis; echocardiography; great ape; health; heart disease; monitoring; ultrasound. INTRODUCTION Heart disease has been widely reported as a major cause of mortality in captive great ape populations (Schmidt, 1975; Munson & Montali, 1990; Meehan & Lowenstein, 1994; Seiler et al., 2009; McManamon & Lowenstine, 2012). However, ‘heart disease’ is an umbrella term that encompasses a variety of congenital and acquired diseases that differ considerably in their symptoms and phenotypical expression. For example, previous authors have reported evidence of aortic dissection (Kenny et al., 1994), inter- stitial myocardial fibrosis (Lammey et al., 2008), dilated cardiomyopathy (Sleeper et al., 2005), hypertension with subsequent heart failure (Miller et al., 1999) and *Correspondence: Professor Rob Shave, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cyncoed Campus, Cardiff CF23 6XD, UK. E-mail: rshave@cardiffmet.ac.uk ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY IN GREAT APES 1 Int. Zoo Yb. (2014) 48: ••–•• DOI:10.1111/izy.12026 Int. Zoo Yb. (2014) 48: ••–•• © 2013 The Authors. International Zoo Yearbook © 2013 The Zoological Society of London