PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Stress and Accessibility of Proximity-Related Thoughts: Exploring the Normative and Intraindividual Components of Attachment Theory Mario Mikulincer, Gurit Birnbaum, David Woddis, and Orit Nachmias Bar-Ilan University Three studies examine the effects of stress on the accessibility of proximity-related thoughts. In all the studies, participants reported on their attachment style, and the accessibility of proximity themes and worries in a lexical decision task was assessed upon the priming of a stress or neutral word. In Study 2, the primed stress word was semantically related to attachment themes. In Study 3, lexical decisions were made under low or high cognitive load conditions. Overall, the priming of a stress word led to increased accessibility of proximity themes, regardless of attachment style. Anxious-ambivalent people also showed high accessibility to proximity themes and worries in both neutral and stress contexts. In most conditions, avoidant persons' reactions were similar to those of secure persons. However, they showed no accessibility to proximity worries even after the priming of a semantically related word and reacted with high accessibility to these worries upon the addition of cognitive load. In his classic trilogy, Bowlby (1969, 1973, 1980) developed an ethological theory about the function, antecedents, and conse- quences of the activation of the attachment system in humans. However, the vast majority of attachment studies have adopted an individual differences perspective, dealing with Bowlby's (1973, 1988) statements about the effects of a person's history of attach- ment experiences on his or her attachment style. This trend is mainly noted in adult attachment studies, which have focused on the ways people differing in attachment style differ in the way they regulate distress. Our study attempts to integrate the normative and intraindividual components of attachment theory and to examine Bowlby's hypothesis about the effect of stress arousal on the activation of the attachment system. Specifically, we examine whether a stress context cognitively activates the attachment sys- tem in most individuals while, at the same time, examining whether and how individual differences in attachment style may color this activation. Attachment, Stress Arousal, and Distress Regulation One basic statement of Bowlby's (1969, 1973, 1980) theory is that all human beings are born with an attachment system aimed at maintaining proximity to significant others (attachment figures) in times of stress. In Bowlby's terms, proximity maintenance to attachment figures helps the individual to deal with stress-inducing events and to regulate distress. These figures function as a haven Mario Mikulincer, Gurit Birnbaum, David Woddis, and Orit Nachmias, Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mario Mikulincer, Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Israel. Electronic mail may be sent to mikulm@mail.biu.ac.il. of safety to which the individual can retreat for comfort in times of stress as well as a "secure base" from which he or she can explore the world and develop his or her personality in a supportive atmosphere. According to Bowlby (1988), the attachment system is active over the entire life span and it is directly manifested in thoughts and behaviors related to proximity and support seeking. Along this reasoning, Bowlby (1973) also proposed that the encounter with stress automatically activates the attachment sys- tem. In his view, stress signals that something is going wrong and that some coping action should be taken. As a result, the attach- ment system is activated and the individual is driven to maintain or restore proximity to persons who can provide support in managing distress. In a smooth course of events, this activation would be manifested in actual seeking of proximity and support. However, there are cases in which these behaviors may be inhibited by the absence of attachment figures as well as by other contextual and personal factors. In this case, the attachment system may be still active at a cognitive level. That is, thoughts about proximity may still influence cognition and behavior. In social cognitive terms, stress may heighten the accessibility of proximity thoughts even when proximity-seeking behaviors are inhibited. Beyond the above ideas about the normative activation of the attachment system, Bowlby (1973, 1988) also adopted an individ- ual difference perspective. In his view, a person's attachment history might contribute to distress regulation. On the one hand, interactions with significant others who are available in times of stress and responsive to one's attachment needs may lead to the development of positive expectations about the self and the world, while encouraging the reliance on support seeking when coping with life problems. On the other hand, interactions with significant others who are unavailable and nonresponsive in times of need may elicit chronic distress and encourage the formation of other defensive strategies rather than proximity seeking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2000, Vol. 78, No. 3, 509-523 Copyright 2000 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0O22-3514/O0/$5.O0 DOI: 10.1037OT022-3514.78.3.509 509 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.