Chinese Singaporeans’ lay beliefs, adherence to Asian values, and subjective well-being Y. Joel Wong a,⇑ , Ringo M. Ho b , Peiwei Li a,1 , Minkyeong Shin a,1 , Pei-Chun Tsai c,1 a Indiana University Bloomington, USA b Division of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 14 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637332, Singapore c Department of Psychology, Iowa State University, W112 Lagomarcino Hall, Ames, IA 50011, USA article info Article history: Received 12 October 2010 Received in revised form 24 December 2010 Accepted 8 January 2011 Available online 5 February 2011 Keywords: Subjective well-being Happiness Asian Lay beliefs Culture Singapore abstract This study examined the relationships among Chinese Singaporeans’ lay beliefs about subjective well- being, adherence to Asian values (as measured by the Asian American Values Scale), and self-reported subjective well-being (as measured by the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form). Participants were 210 undergraduate students of Chinese des- cent (mean age = 21.01 years) in a Singaporean university. Participants provided responses to an open- ended question about what it means to be happy. Participants’ responses were coded according to whether they endorsed positivity beliefs and dialectical beliefs about happiness. Positivity beliefs were positively related to life satisfaction, but only among those with low adherence to Asian values. Among participants who strongly adhered to Asian values, positivity beliefs were not significantly related to life satisfaction. Beliefs about happiness were not related to negative affect. However, participants who endorsed dialectical beliefs reported less positive affect. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Individuals’ experience of subjective well-being (SWB) is inher- ently linked to their culture. Although SWB might be a universal experience, culture shapes its causes, level, expression, meaning, and consequences (Suh & Koo, 2008; Tov & Diener, 2007). Within the field of culture and SWB, a promising line of research is the influence of culture on lay conceptions of SWB (Tov & Diener, 2007). The study of lay beliefs about SWB in diverse cultures may play an important role in challenging the philosophical assumptions underlining current conceptualizations of SWB (Lu & Gilmour, 2004). Currently, most Western psychologists conceptualize SWB as being synonymous with what lay people refer to as ‘‘happiness’’ (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003) and consisting of a cognitive judgment about life satisfaction, maximizing positive affect, and minimizing negative affect (Diener, 1984). Nevertheless, if there are other be- liefs about SWB that are salient in non-Western cultures, then cau- tion should be exercised in using these constructs as universal yardsticks of SWB. Using the example of the Buddhist belief that life is characterized by suffering and hopelessness, Constantine and Sue (2006) pointed out that positive psychology constructs, such as happiness, are inherently culture bound. Additionally, Suh and Koo (2008) proposed that cultural differ- ences in self-reported SWB could be due to different conceptions about SWB held by people from diverse cultures. For example, peo- ple who hold positivity beliefs about SWB (i.e., belief that SWB in- volves maximizing one’s personal positive experiences) might seek out experiences that would enhance their life satisfaction and affective well-being. Nonetheless, research on the intersection of culture, lay beliefs, and self-reported SWB is lacking. To address this gap in the literature, we sought in this study to examine the interface of culturally-informed lay beliefs about SWB and self- reported SWB. In particular, we aimed to extend the research on culture and lay beliefs about SWB in several new directions. First, an important limitation of research in this area is the neglect of within-group differences in a cultural group (Diener et al., 2003). Thus far, most studies on culture and lay beliefs about SWB have focused on cross-cultural and cross-national comparisons (e.g., Pflug, 2009; Uchida & Kitayama, 2009). Although such a focus can help elucidate the influence of culture on lay beliefs about SWB, it may also have the unintended effect of over-emphasizing cultural differences. The investigation of within-group cultural dif- ferences is critical because individuals within the same culture or country may have been exposed to multiple cultural influences (Tov & Diener, 2007) and may therefore embrace a variety of culturally-informed beliefs about SWB. 0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.003 ⇑ Corresponding author. Address: School of Education, 201, N. Rose Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA. Tel.: +1 812 856 8293, fax: +1 812 856 8333. E-mail address: joelwong@indiana.edu (Y.J. Wong). 1 These authors contributed equally to this article; the order of authorship for these authors was determined alphabetically. Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 822–827 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid