Copyright © 2008 Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society, Inc 83 UHM 2008, Vol. 35, No. 2 – Cardiac response to breath-hold diving. Cardiac function during breath-hold diving in humans: An echocardiographic study. Submitted: 2/15/07 - Accepted: 11/12/07 C. MARABOTTI 1,3 , A. BELARDINELLI 1 , A. L’ABBATE 2,1 , A. SCALZINI 3 , F. CHIESA 3 , D. CIALONI 4 , M. PASSERA 1 and R. BEDINI 1 . 1 C.N.R Institute of Clinical Physiology, Pisa; 2 Scuola Superiore S. Anna, Pisa; 3 U.O. Cardiovascolare – UTIC Ospedale di Cecina (Livorno); 4 Apnea Academy Research – ITALY Marabotti C, Belardinelli A, L’Abbate A, Scalzini A, Chiesa F, Cialoni D, Passera M, Bedini R. Cardiac function during breath-hold diving in humans. an echocardiographic study. Undersea Hyperb Med 2008; 35(2):83-90. Breath-hold diving induces, in marine mammals, a reduction of cardiac output due to a decrease of both heart rate and stroke volume. Cardiovascular changes in humans during breath-hold diving are only partially known due to the technical difficulty of studying fully immersed subjects. Recently, a submersible echocardiograph has been developed, allowing a feasible assessment of cardiac anatomy and function of subjects during diving. Aim of the study was to evaluate, by Doppler-echocardiography, the cardiovascular changes induced by breath-hold diving in humans. Ten male subjects were studied by Doppler echocardiography in dry conditions and during breath-hold diving at 3m depth. In addition 14 male subjects were studied, using the same protocol, before and during breath-hold diving at 10m depth. At 3m depth significant reductions in heart rate (-17%), stroke volume (-17%), cardiac output (-29%), left atrial dimensions, and deceleration time of early diastolic transmitral flow (DTE) were observed. At 10m depth similar but more pronounced changes occurred. In particular, increase in early transmitral flow velocity became significant (+33%), while DTE decreased by 34%. At both depths dimensions of right cardiac chambers remained unchanged. Breath-hold diving at shallow depth induced, in humans, cardiovascular changes qualitatively similar to those observed in natural divers such as seals. The reduced dimensions of left atrium associated to a left ventricular diastolic pattern resembling that of restrictive/constrictive heart disease, suggest that the hemodynamic effects of diving could be explained, at least in part, by a constriction exerted on the heart by the reduced chest volume and the increased blood content of the lungs. Finally, the absence of dimensional changes in the right chambers suggests that most of the pulmonary blood shift occurred before cardiac imaging. INTRODUCTION Breath-hold diving is associated with complex cardiovascular changes as described in free diving instrumented marine mammals (1,2). The study of cardiovascular response to diving in humans has been hampered by the lack of technology suitable for measuring cardiac anatomical and functional parameters of fully immersed subjects. Thus most of the knowledge on human diving physiology derives either from the study of head-out immersed subjects (3,4) or extrapolated from the results obtained in subjects during breath- hold either with or without face immersion (5,6). Doppler-echocardiography, allowing a real-time assessment of cardiac anatomy and function (both systolic and diastolic), may represent a feasible way of studying cardiac response to diving in humans. Therefore, a submersible Doppler-2D-echocardiographic machine has been recently developed at the CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology in Pisa