APPLIED RESEARCH Craving for cigarettes among low and high dependent smokers: impact of norharman REGINA J. J. M. VAN DEN EIJNDEN, 1 RENSKE SPIJKERMAN 1 & DURK FEKKES 2 1 Addiction Research Institute, Rotterdam & 2 Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands Abstract Besides nicotine, other chemicals in tobacco smoke, such as norharman, may contribute to the addictive properties of cigarettes. More specifically, elevated blood plasma levels of norharman may reduce feelings of craving among tobacco-dependent individuals. To test this hypothesis, plasma concentrations of norharman were measured in 38 male smokers (at least 15 cigarettes per day) at three time-points on 3 different days spread over a 4-month period. The first measurement (T0) was conducted in the morning at 8.30 a.m., after 12 hours of smoking abstinence. The T1 and T2 measurements were conducted at 13.00 p.m. and 16.30 p.m., during a period of ad libitum smoking (after the T0 measurement, participants were not restricted in their smoking behaviour). At each of the nine time-points, craving was assessed by means of a shortened version of the Questionnaire of Smoking Urges. The Fagerstro ¨m Test of Nicotine Dependence was used to obtain an indication of nicotine dependence. The results showed that, after a period of smoking abstinence, craving was stronger in those with a high tobacco dependence than in those with a low tobacco dependence. After resumption of smoking, craving declined to a similar low level in both low and high dependent smokers. Measurements during periods of ad libitum smoking indicate that plasma levels of norharman are related negatively to craving among low nicotine-dependent smokers, but not among high dependent smokers. Introduction The development of tobacco dependence is generally explained by the psychological and behavioural effects of nicotine, which is considered the major pharmacologically active chemical in tobacco. 1–3 Although there is little doubt that nicotine plays a major role in the development and continuation of tobacco dependence, other chemicals in tobacco smoke may also contribute to the addictive properties of cigarettes. 2 For example, the beta-carboline norharman is reported to play an additional role in processes of addiction, particularly in alcohol and tobacco use. 4–6 Norharman is a normal body constituent produced by humans and other mammals. 4,7,8 Because norharman is also present in tobacco smoke 9 and in alcoholic beverages, 10 the use of these sub- stances is thought to increase plasma concen- trations of norharman. Moreover, these elevated plasma levels of norharman may reduce feelings of craving among tobacco or Received for publication 10th September 2003. Accepted 30th October 2003. Correspondence to: Regina J. J. M. van den Eijnden, Addiction Research Institute, Heemraadssingel 194, 3021 DM Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Tel: 31 10 4253366; Fax: 31 10 2763988; E-mail: Eijnden@ivo.nl Addiction Biology (December 2003) 8, 463 – 472 ISSN 1355–6215 print/ISSN 1369-1600 online/03/040463-10 # Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and Other Drugs Taylor & Francis Ltd DOI: 10.1080/13556210310001646457