Carbon footprint mitigation on vacation: A norm activation model Jerry J. Vaske a,n , Maarten H. Jacobs b , Tiffany K. Espinosa a a Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA b Cultural Geography University Wageningen, The Netherlands article info Article history: Received 8 January 2015 Received in revised form 6 April 2015 Accepted 21 May 2015 Keywords: Norm activation Salience Responsibility Carbon footprint abstract The norm activation theory and past research suggest that ecologically appropriate behaviors increase when individuals (a) ascribe personal responsibility (AR) to protect the environment and (b) are aware of the consequences (AC) of their actions. We examined the influence of AR and AC on ecological norm salience and reported pro-environmental behavior while people were on vacation. Data were obtained from a random sample of the general public in the Netherlands (n ¼1144, response rate ¼88%). As pre- dicted AC influenced AR. Norm salience partially mediated the influence of AR and AC on reported be- havior. As AR and AC increased, norm salience increased; this model accounted for 32% of the variance in the norm concept. As all the three constructs (i.e., AR, AC, norm salience) increased, respondents were more willing to engage in pro-environmental behavior. The partial mediation model accounted for 44% of the variance in reported behavior. Findings here support the continued use of the norm activation model to explain tourist behavior. Management implications This article demonstrated that to mitigate unintended negative environmental consequences of tourists on holidays, managers should be aware of: ● How travelers' sense of entitlement, the symbolism of freedom from everyday expectations, and a lack of awareness of their impact can lead to negative ecological behaviors. ● Messaging that makes travelers aware of the consequences of their actions can increase their as- cription of responsibility toward the environment and promote pro-ecological behaviors. ● Messaging that increases the salience of descriptive and injunctive norms can guide travelers' be- havior to act in more pro-ecological ways. & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Greenhouse gases (GHG) and carbon emissions are critical areas of concern for the global community. Left unchecked, global climate change potentially threatens both the natural environment (e.g., flooding of coastal resources due to rising sea levels), and the health and safety of individuals (e.g., increased skin disease). Al- though research has examined what people can do in their daily lives to reduce their carbon footprint, less attention has been fo- cused on the behaviors of individuals when they are away from home. Traveling and tourism contributes between 5% and 14% of the world GHG emissions (Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall, & Gladin, 2008). More than half of these emissions are due to air travel, with the majority of remaining emissions coming from other land and sea-based modes of transport (Peeters, Williams, & Gössling, 2007, p. 30). Given the significant amount of carbon produced by travel and tourism, pro-environmental decision making for tourists merits attention (McKercher, Prideaux, & Cheung, 2010; Reilly, Williams, & Haider, 2010). Climate change and the need to change human behavior in response are increasingly accepted and identified as key chal- lenges for tourism (Bramwell & Lane, 2012; Buckley, 2012; Gös- sling, Hall, Ekström, & Engeset, 2012; Scott, 2011; Weaver, 2012). While policies, management measures, and technological in- novations can reduce tourism's climate change impacts (Buckley, 2009), a shift to lower-carbon practices would likely require en- gagement of tourists (Urry, 2011). This article contributes to the literature by examining psychological antecedents of sustainable Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jort Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2015.05.002 2213-0780/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. n Corresponding author. E-mail address: jerryv@cnr.colostate.edu (J.J. Vaske). Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 11 (2015) 80–86