Review The covariation of independent and dependant variables in neurofeedback: A proposal framework to identify cognitive processes and brain activity variables Jean-Arthur Micoulaud-Franchi a,b,c,⇑ , Clélia Quiles d,e , Guillaume Fond f , Michel Cermolacce a,b,c , Jean Vion-Dury a,b,c a Solaris, Pôle de Psychiatrie Universitaire, CHU Sainte-Marguerite, 270 Bd Sainte-Marguerite, 13009 Marseille, France b Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives (LNC), UMR CNRS 7291, 31 Aix-Marseille Université, Site St Charles, 3 place Victor Hugo, 13331 Marseille Cedex 3, France c Unité de Neurophysiologie et Psychophysiologie, Fondation FondaMental, Pôle de Psychiatrie Universitaire, CHU Sainte-Marguerite, 270 Bd Sainte-Marguerite, 13009 Marseille, France d Centre Hospitalier Charles Perrens, Pôle Universitaire de Psychiatrie Adulte, 121 Rue de la Béchade, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France e Université Bordeaux Segalen, 146 rue Léo-Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France f Université Paris Est-Créteil, Pôle de psychiatrie du Groupe des hôpitaux universitaires de Mondor, INSERM U955, Eq Psychiatrie Génétique, Fondation FondaMental Fondation de coopération scientifique en santé mentale, France article info Article history: Received 20 August 2013 Keywords: Neurofeedback Brain Mind Dependent variable Independent variable Neurophenomenology Psychophysiology Neuropsychology abstract This methodological article proposes a framework for analysing the relationship between cognitive processes and brain activity using variables measured by neurofeedback (NF) carried out by functional Magnetic Resonance Imagery (fMRI NF). Cognitive processes and brain activity variables can be analysed as either the dependant variable or the independent variable. Firstly, we propose two traditional approaches, defined in the article as the ‘‘neuropsychological’’ approach (NP) and the ‘‘psychophysiology’’ approach (PP), to extract dependent and independent variables in NF protocols. Secondly, we suggest that NF can be inspired by the style of inquiry used in neurophenomenology. fMRI NF allows participants to experiment with his or her own cognitive processes and their effects on brain region of interest (ROI) activations simultaneously. Thus, we suggest that fMRI NF could be improved by implementing ‘‘the elicitation interview method’’, which allows the investigator to gather relevant verbatim from participants’ introspection on subjective experiences. Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 163 2. Traditional approaches and hypothetical constructs ............................................................ 163 3. Hypothetical constructs in neurofeedback protocols ............................................................ 164 4. The analyses of neurofeedback variables ..................................................................... 165 4.1. The ‘‘neuropsychological’’ approach in fMRI neurofeedback protocols ........................................ 165 4.2. The ‘‘psychophysiological’’ approach in fMRI neurofeedback protocols........................................ 166 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.03.007 1053-8100/Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. ⇑ Corresponding author at: Solaris, Pôle de Psychiatrie Universitaire, Hôpital Sainte-Marguerite, 270 Bd Sainte-Marguerite, 13009 Marseille, France. E-mail address: jarthur.micoulaud@gmail.com (J.-A. Micoulaud-Franchi). Consciousness and Cognition 26 (2014) 162–168 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Consciousness and Cognition journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/concog