262 www.frontiersinecology.org © The Ecological Society of America H uman activity has resulted in the release of nearly half a trillion tons of greenhouse gas (GHG) emis- sions over the past 100 years, and, under some business-as- usual scenarios, an additional trillion tons could be released this century (IPCC 2001a). This trend is driving climate change, and is likely to result in enormous losses of both economic and natural capital if not properly addressed (Figure 1). The Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change, framed in 1992 and expected to come into force in the near future, repre- sents an important milestone in tackling this pressing global problem. Although many scientists believe that the Protocol’s initial emissions targets represent only a tiny fraction of the reductions that will ultimately be needed to stabilize the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs, it is widely seen as a valuable first step in building the kinds of international institutions and cooperation that will be nec- essary to adequately address this unprecedented challenge. However, as it is currently written, the Protocol could be interpreted in ways that are counterproductive with regard to another acute problem of global magnitude: the large-scale destruction of important ecological habitat and biodiversity.  Biodiversity loss and climate change Human-induced land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) activities worldwide currently account for 20–25% of annual global GHG emissions, or roughly 1–1.5 billion tons of carbon (Watson et al. 2000). This encompasses influencing flows within the carbon cycle from activities such as forest removal, hydroelectric damming, road expansion, urban sprawl, and soil degra- dation and losses from agriculture, ranching, and logging. It also includes the annual destruction of an estimated 6–10 million ha of tropical rain forest, harboring some of the planet’s most biologically diverse and abundant flora and fauna (Watson et al. 2000; Figure 2). The rapid loss of forests is not only contributing to the buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), but is also directly undermining the world’s biological resources, ulti- mately precipitating species extinctions and biodiversity loss. This, in turn, jeopardizes the climate adaptation ser- vices which many complex ecosystems deliver, further exacerbating the potential impacts of climate change. Maintaining high biodiversity has been linked to ecosystem resilience in the face of common climate change-related shocks such as storms, floods, fires, and droughts (Abramowitz 2001). Ecosystems that have more diversity in terms of species, structure, and function pro- vide more alternatives for transferring energy and nutri- ents, and have a greater capacity for resisting and reacting resiliently to such shocks compared to systems with low biodiversity, which are more likely to decline or even col- lapse and not recover (Folke et al. 2002). Furthermore, on REVIEWS REVIEWS REVIEWS Biodiversity, climate, and the Kyoto Protocol: risks and opportunities Michael Totten, Sonal I Pandya, and Toby Janson-Smith Climate change is occurring at the same time as another problem of global and historical proportions – the sixth mass species extinction crisis in the history of life on earth. Wide-scale deforestation is fueling climate change and biodiversity loss, and is expected to greatly accelerate biodiversity loss and species extinctions. Recognizing the intimate interconnection between these two global problems and designing resilient actions that address both simultaneously is more important than ever; humanity has neither the time nor the finan- cial resources to treat these challenges separately and sequentially. We must establish an international frame- work to encourage synergistic actions that capture multiple benefits while avoiding negative trade-offs. The Kyoto Protocol, as currently written, does little to advance such convergent solutions, and in many ways could unwittingly promote further biodiversity loss. Here we outline the risks associated with this climate treaty and suggest possible approaches that could capture otherwise lost opportunities. Front Ecol Environ 2003; 1(5): 262–270 Center for Environmental Leadership in Business, Conservation International, 1919 M St NW, Washington, DC 20036 In a nutshell: • Deforestation is a major contributor to climate change and biodiversity loss • The current Kyoto Protocol fails to adequately include carbon mitigation options that could reduce ecosystem and species destruction, while encouraging others that may result in adverse trade-offs • Policy makers have the opportunity to promote actions that simultaneously protect climate and biodiversity, while achiev- ing substantial ecological, cost, and sustainable development benefits • The prevention of deforestation, ecological restoration of frag- mented landscapes, and reforestation on degraded lands are examples of such synergistic solutions