Uncorrected Author Proof International Journal of Developmental Science xx (20xx) x–xx DOI 10.3233/DEV-1312113 IOS Press Internalising Problems and the Effects of Peer Ostracism on Children’s Primary Needs 1 2 David J. Hawes a,∗ , Lisa Zadro a , Rose Iannuzzelli a , Alexandra Godwin a , Georgia MacNevin a , Mark R. Dadds b , Brendan Griffiths a and Rick Richardson b 3 4 a School of Psychology, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia 5 b University of New South Wales, NSW, Australia 6 Abstract 7 The aim of this study was to examine associations between ostracism, internalising problems, and threat to primary needs (belonging, control, self- esteem, meaningful existence) in children (N = 165, M age = 9 years). Ostracism was simulated experimentally using the Cyberball paradigm—a computer-based ball-throwing game—and threats to primary needs were indexed using a modified version of the primary needs questionnaire (PNQ-C; Hawes et al., 2012). Overall, children with greater internalising problems reported greater need-threat following Cyberball. Importantly however, in the domain of ‘belonging’, the relationship between internalising problems and need-threat was moderated by inclusionary status. Specifically, children with high levels of internalising problems exhibited greater need-threat than children low in internalising problems when included by peers; yet following ostracism, children with high internalising problems were no longer distinguishable from those with low internalising problems in terms of threat to belonging. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Keywords 16 Ostracism, children, internalising problems, primary needs, Cyberball 17 Extensive research in adults has shown that the aver- 18 sive experience of ostracism threatens four ‘primary 19 human needs’: belongingness, control, self-esteem, 20 and meaningful existence (see Williams, 2007). More 21 recently, ostracism has been shown to impact on the 22 same primary needs in children (e.g., Abrams et al., 23 2011; Hawes et al., 2012). Importantly, these needs 24 overlap markedly with domains that are commonly dis- 25 turbed in individuals with internalising problems such 26 as anxiety and depression. Such individuals, for exam- 27 ple, often exhibit an external locus of control, low 28 self-esteem, and negative self-schemas associated with 29 a sense of worthlessness and expectations of social 30 rejection (Brewin, 1996). Whereas anxiety and depres- 31 sion may arise from a range of risk factors, it is thought 32 that the impact of chronic ostracism on these domains 33 may represent one causal pathway (Williams, 2007). 34 However we are aware of no child research to date that ∗ Address for correspondence David Hawes, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. E-mail: david.hawes@sydney.edu.au. has examined the relation between ostracism and inter- 35 nalising problems, nor how this association may vary 36 under different social conditions. 37 The aim of this study was to examine the association 38 between internalising problems and primary needs in 39 childhood, and to test whether this association is mod- 40 erated by inclusionary status. Based on findings that 41 adults with social anxiety exhibit a heightened threat to 42 primary needs (Oaten, Jones, Williams, & Zadro, 2008; 43 Zadro, Boland, & Richardson, 2006), we hypothesised 44 first that children with internalising problems would 45 exhibit greater threat to primary needs than healthy 46 children. 47 Existing literature on psychopathology and social 48 processes provides indirect support for two competing 49 processes through which experiences of ostracism may 50 moderate the association between internalising prob- 51 lems and threat to primary needs. First, if the baseline 52 threat to primary needs maintained by children with 53 internalising problems is consistently greater than that 54 of healthy children – as they appear to be in adults 55 (Oaten et al., 2008; Zadro et al., 2006) – it is possible 56 ISSN 2192-001X/13/$27.50 © 2013 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved 1