Research report Persuasive techniques used in television advertisements to market foods to UK children Emma J. Boyland ⇑ , Joanne A. Harrold, Tim C. Kirkham, Jason C.G. Halford Kissileff Laboratory for the Study of Human Ingestive Behaviour, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Liverpool, Eleanor Rathbone Building, Bedford Street South, Liverpool L69 7ZA, UK article info Article history: Received 5 October 2011 Received in revised form 15 November 2011 Accepted 17 November 2011 Available online 22 November 2011 Keywords: Persuasive techniques Food adverts Children Marketing Obesity abstract The aim of this study was to quantify the nature and extent of use of persuasive marketing techniques in television advertisements (adverts) to promote foods to children. Popular UK commercial television channels broadcasting children’s/family viewing were recorded for 2 days (6 am–10 pm) every month in 2008 and recordings were screened for adverts. Eighteen thousand eight hundred and eighty eight adverts were for food and these were coded for peak/non-peak children’s viewing time and representa- tion of core (healthy)/non-core (unhealthy)/miscellaneous foods. The analysis assessed use of persuasive appeals, premium offers, promotional characters (brand equity and licensed characters), celebrity endorsers and website promotion in food adverts. Promotional characters, celebrity endorsers and pre- mium offers were used more frequently to promote non-core than core foods, even on dedicated chil- dren’s channels. Brand equity characters featured on a greater proportion of food adverts than licensed characters. A food brand website was promoted in a third of food adverts (websites are not covered by the statutory regulation on food advertising). This extensive analysis of television adverts demonstrated that the use of persuasive marketing techniques to promote unhealthy foods was extensive in broadcast- ing popular with children despite regulations. Further studies should incorporate an analysis of the con- tent of websites promoted during food adverts. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction The use of persuasive techniques in television food advertising is associated with greater attention and a greater likelihood of gaining an emotional response from child viewers (Lewis & Hill, 1998). Therefore the nature of food adverts is a crucial element of their effectiveness (Lewis & Hill, 1998). Indeed, the World Health Organisation recommendations on the marketing of foods and non-alcoholic beverages to children state that the content, design and execution of an advert is a key contributor to the power of the marketing message (WHO, 2010). Understanding how advertisers market foods to children is essential in order to focus on beneficial outcomes, such as how to favourably influence dietary choices (Hastings et al., 2003). Yet the nature of television food advertising (with regard to the use of persuasive techniques) is under researched, particularly outside of the US (Furnham, Abramsky, & Gunter, 1997; Kelly et al., 2010; Lewis & Hill, 1998; Sixsmith & Furnham, 2010). Studies have tended to focus on analysing the nature of the product itself rather than the nature of the message promoting the product (Schor & Ford, 2007). Hastings et al. (2003) purport that the development of promotional techniques by advertisers is becoming ever more sophisticated, with much now based on extensive market research carried out to discern children’s interests, motivations, values and beliefs. Marketing techniques such as promotional characters, celebrity endorsers, premium offers, persuasive appeals or other attributes of advertising such as the use of website promotion have previ- ously been identified in television food advertising (Gantz, Schwartz, Angelini, & Rideout, 2007). Brand recognition is thought to be enhanced in young children when cartoon or cartoon-related characters (e.g. Tony the Tiger or Ronald McDonald) are used in advertising or on packaging (Connor, 2006). Characters are thought to add to the persuasiveness of an advert and as a result brands have been criticised for using characters to manipulate children’s food choices (Which?, 2005). Children who recognise characters, logos and slogans from adverts have been shown to be more likely to select those products and brands (Batada & Borzekowski, 2008). The presence of promotional characters on packaging can influence children’s taste preferences and snack selection (Roberto, Baik, Harris, & Brownell, 2010) and can be effective at creating favour- able attitudes towards products and increasing sales, particularly when the characters are well established and recognisable (Callcott & Phillips, 1996; Garretson & Burton, 2005; Garretson & Niedrich, 2004; IOM, 2005; Mizerski, 1995). Ülger (2009) found that both 0195-6663/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.11.017 ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: e.boyland@liverpool.ac.uk, e.boyland@liv.ac.uk (E.J. Boyland). Appetite 58 (2012) 658–664 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Appetite journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/appet