The surface science of semiconductor processing: gate oxides in the ever-shrinking transistor Marcus K. Weldon a, * , K.T. Queeney b , Joseph Eng Jr. c , Krishnan Raghavachari c , Yves J. Chabal c a Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, 600-700 Mountain Avenue, Murray Hill, NJ 07974, USA b Department of Chemistry, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063, USA c Agere Systems, 600-700 Mountain Avenue, Murray Hill, NJ 07974, USA Received 1 August 2000; accepted for publication 17 August 2001 Abstract Due to the extreme dimensional scaling required by Moore’s law, Si device technology is increasingly subject to the limitations imposed by the intrinsic physics and chemistry of surfaces and interfaces. In this review we outline ways in which fundamental surface science has contributed an understanding to the microelectronics community and discuss areas where surface science may impact future development. We focus on the example of silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) on silicon, since this interface lies at the heart of modern transistor technology and has therefore received a great deal of attention in recent years. We highlight a number of experimental and theoretical approaches that have elucidated the fundamental phenomena associated with the formation and evolution of this critical technological interface, revealing the remarkable interdependence of science and technology that now characterizes this rapidly evolving indus- try. Ó 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. Keywords: Silicon; Silicon oxides; Oxidation; Vibrations of adsorbed molecules; Ab initio quantum chemical methods and calculations; Low index single crystal surfaces 1. Introduction At the dawn of the 21st century, we find our- selves firmly entrenched in the information age, an era made possible by advances in microelectronics during the last half of the 20th century. Computers and microelectronic devices, once exclusively the tools of scientists and engineers, are now insepa- rably woven into the fabric of mainstream society, causing a revolution in communications, com- merce, information management, and automation. Just as the industrial revolution began with the invention of the steam engine, the information age began with the invention of the transistor. Originally designed as a solid-state amplifier to replace vacuum tubes, the transistor found a far more important use when researchers at Bell Laboratories realized that the transistor’s small size and low power consumption make it ideal for Surface Science 500 (2002) 859–878 www.elsevier.com/locate/susc * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-908-582-5645; fax: +1-908- 582-3958. E-mail address: marcus@bell-labs.com (M.K. Weldon). 0039-6028/01/$ - see front matter Ó 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. PII:S0039-6028(01)01585-0