Approaches to learning: factor invariance across gender AngusDuff* Research into Learning Unit, University of Paisley, Ayr Campus, Ayr KA8 0SR, UK Received 8 June 2001; received in revised form 5 November 2001; accepted 30 November 2001 Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the factorial invariance of a 30-item version of the Revised ApproachestoStudyingInventory(RASI)acrossmale(N=137)andfemale(N=171)universitystudents. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the fit of the data obtained on the 12 scale scores for male and female samples to the three (higher-order) factor model. The hypothesised three-factor model fit for both samples. However, the model fit for the female sample was better than that of the male sample. A range of progressively restrictive models are tested to establish whether the RASI is equivalent across gender. Factor loadings, error variances, and factor covariances were not invariant, indicating that test constructs may be differentially indicated across groups. These findings, and implications for educational researchers, are discussed. # 2002PublishedbyElsevierScienceLtd. Keywords: Approaches to Learning; RASI; Gender; Factorial invariance 1. Introduction Over the past three decades, a range of interpretative methods of modelling student learning havebeenemployedbyeducationresearchers.Alongtraditionofusingquantitativeapproaches, applying a range of psychometric methods to develop questionnaires to assess students’ approaches to studying exists (e.g. Biggs, 1987; Entwistle, Hanley, & Hounsell, 1979; and Schmeck, Ribich, & Ramaniah, 1977). Such instruments provide the means of establishing how individualsandgroupsofindividualsdifferintheirchoiceoflearningstrategy.Differentlearning strategies(orwaysoflearning)mayserveasthemechanismforobtainingtherequiredknowledge in a rapidly changing environment. Consequently, students who adopt the most appropriate learningstrategyinaparticularcontextarelikelytobemoresuccessfulthanlessskilledlearners (Entwistle, 1998). 0191-8869/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. PII:S0191-8869(01)00208-2 Personality and Individual Differences 33 (2002) 997–1010 www.elsevier.com/locate/paid * Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-1292-886296; fax: +44-1292-886250,. E-mail address: angus.duff@paisley.ac.uk (A. Duff).