The therapeutic alliance: A theoretical revision for offender rehabilitation Elizabeth C. Ross, Devon L.L. Polaschek, Tony Ward ⁎ Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand article info abstract Article history: Received 19 December 2007 Received in revised form 11 June 2008 Accepted 1 July 2008 Available online 9 July 2008 The desired outcome of psychotherapy is positive change. A substantial body of empirical research now supports the importance of the therapeutic alliance in predicting therapeutic change. Research on therapeutic process has also been increasing. Despite these achievements, there is little theoretical understanding of how the therapeutic alliance develops and is maintained. What are the key variables in the establishment of a collaborative relationship between therapist and client that can elicit positive change in the client? Recent interest in client responsivity and effective therapy process with offenders has shed light on how little relevant theory and research exists on process issues in offender rehabilitation, compared to conventional psychotherapy. Although the general ingredients of a therapeutic alliance may be similar across therapy contexts, difficulties in creating these alliances with offenders can prompt a more complete examination of these ingredients. This article examines and critiques the dominant model of the therapeutic alliance proposed by Bordin [Bordin, E.S. (1979). The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 16, 252–260.], and then integrates it with recent research, theory, and clinical observation from the field of offender rehabilitation, to propose a Revised Theory of the Therapeutic Alliance that is particularly relevant for therapists who work to reduce future risk of criminal behavior. © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Therapeutic alliance Offenders Contents 1. Bordin's theory of the working alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 2. Evaluation of Bordin's model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 3. Current therapeutic process issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 3.1. Therapist characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 3.2. Client characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 3.3. Therapist–client interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 3.4. Setting and contextual factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 3.5. System factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 3.6. Immediate therapy context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 3.7. Role conflict and confusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 3.8. Program factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 3.9. Group treatment settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 4. A Revised Theory of the Therapeutic Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 5. Critical evaluation of the Revised Theory of the Therapeutic Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Aggression and Violent Behavior 13 (2008) 462–480 ⁎ Corresponding author. School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, P O Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand. Tel.: +64 4 463 6789; fax: +64 4 463 5402. E-mail addresses: Elizabeth.ross@vuw.ac.nz (E.C. Ross), devon.polaschek@vuw.ac.nz (D.L.L. Polaschek), tony.ward@vuw.ac.nz (T. Ward). 1359-1789/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2008.07.003 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Aggression and Violent Behavior