International Journal of Drug Policy 22 (2011) 455–462 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect International Journal of Drug Policy jo ur n al homep age: www.elsevier.com/locate/drugpo Research paper Maintaining class, producing gender: Enhancement discourses about amphetamine in entertainment media Stacey A. McKenna * University of Colorado Denver, Department of Health & Behavioral Sciences, Campus Box 188, P.O. Box 173364, Denver, CO 80217-3364, USA a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 29 April 2011 Received in revised form 23 August 2011 Accepted 25 August 2011 Keywords: Amphetamine Discourse Media Social construction Stigma a b s t r a c t Background: Since the 1930s, amphetamine has been used for a variety of socially and medically con- doned purposes including personal and performance enhancement. In the contemporary U.S., although amphetamine and its derivatives share a history, similar chemical composition, and physiological and psychiatric effects, they are typically treated and researched as two distinct groups: illegally produced methamphetamine and prescription amphetamine. This study is an examination of the social meanings of these categories and their users as represented in popular media. Methods: To complement existing research on drug discourses in popular news media, this study analysed entertainment media: ten novels, three seasons of Breaking Bad, six television episodes, and eight movies. Media were coded inductively and deductively using tenets of critical discourse analysis and rhetori- cal criticism. The author identified discourses about user subject positions and ideologies pertaining to enhancement-related motivations for use. Results: Two important themes emerged from this analysis that construct amphetamine use and users in ways that reflect, legitimize and reproduce class and gender ideologies. First, discourses illustrate that distinct meanings of methamphetamine versus prescription amphetamine are linked to expectations about the respective socioeconomic class and social status of their users. Second, the discourses reflect gendered values and ideals about productivity and sexuality. Conclusion: In reality, American cultural and political–economic contexts may encourage the use of amphetamine to meet a variety of social expectations and economic needs. However, many policy and prevention efforts surrounding amphetamine use disproportionately target methamphetamine users and women. Because policy and prevention efforts can be influenced as much by social values as by data, it is important to examine the many arenas in which social values are produced and disseminated. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Amphetamine use and enhancement in the United States Approximately 5% of Americans are currently estimated to use some type of amphetamine. Most use under medical supervision, but, consistent with the drug’s history, many also use for a vari- ety of recreational and enhancement purposes (Rasmussen, 2008). The use of medical technologies for enhancement should be distin- guished from treatment, as the intent is to improve a mind or body that is not in need of repair (Bostrom & Sandberg, 2009), often in an attempt to meet social expectations and fulfil social norms (Wolpe, 2002). Capitalist definitions of success (i.e., material gain, consump- tion), coupled with the high value of a protestant work ethic, and often the need to work long hours to make ends meet, create a context in which many turn to amphetamine to work long hours and balance multiple, overwhelming obligations (Brecht, O’Brien, * Tel.: +1 970 443 8063; fax: +1 303 556 8501. E-mail address: stacey.mckenna@ucdenver.edu von Mayrhauser, & Anglin, 2004; Crampton, Mishra, & Zerfas, 2008; Pine, 2007; Quintero & Nichter, 2011; Quintero, Peterson, & Young, 2006). In addition, expectations about physical appearance and social roles lead men and women to report highly gendered motiva- tions for initiating or continuing use. For example, women are likely to report using amphetamine to lose weight and to work both in and outside the home, whilst men report using to improve sexual performance (Brecht et al., 2004; Joe, 1995; Murphy & Rosenbaum, 1999). Despite similarities in chemistry, legal classification, and motivations for use, amphetamine and its derivatives are typically separated into two distinct categories of drug with disparate social meanings: illegally produced methamphetamine (meth), and pre- scription amphetamine (e.g., Ritalin, Adderall, Desoxyn). Though meth use often transcends socioeconomic class, affect- ing those from all walks of life, relative to its prescription counterparts, it is more likely to be used by lower and middle socioeconomic status (SES) individuals (Joe, 1996; Pine, 2007). Pre- scription amphetamine is often used illicitly by high school and college students of higher SES (Hall, Irwin, Bowman, Frankenberger, 0955-3959/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.08.007