Lead emissions from solar photovoltaic energy systems in China and India Perry Gottesfeld a,n , Christopher R. Cherry b a Occupational Knowledge International, 4444 Geary Blvd, Suite 300, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA b Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-2010, USA article info Article history: Received 20 January 2011 Accepted 9 June 2011 Available online 7 July 2011 Keywords: Lead battery Solar photovoltaic Solar lantern abstract China and India are embarking on ambitious initiatives over the next decade to expand solar photovoltaic (PV) power in underserved regions. China proposes adding 1.6 GW of solar capacity by 2020, while India plans 12 GW in addition to 20 million solar lanterns by 2022. These technologies rely heavily on lead-acid batteries (LABs) for storage. China and India’s lead mining, battery production, and recycling industries are relatively inefficient—33% and 22% environmental loss rates, respectively. Based on the quantity of lead batteries employed in existing PV systems, we estimate environmental lead emissions in China and India for new units installed under their solar energy goals. The average loss rates are 12 kg (China) and 8.5 kg (India) of lead lost per kW-year of installed PV capacity in these countries. The planned systems added in China and India will be responsible for 386 and 2030 kt of environmental lead loss, respectively, over their lifespan—equal to 1/3 of global lead production in 2009. Investments in environmental controls in lead smelting, battery manufacturing, and recycling industries along with improvements in battery take-back policies should complement deployment of solar PV systems to mitigate negative impacts of lead pollution. & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction In recognition of the importance of low-carbon renewable energy supplies, many countries are greatly expanding invest- ments in solar and wind power. Climate change, potential disruptions in energy supplies, and threats to global security are encouraging national energy programs to emphasize renewable sources. Much of the emphasis of these efforts is to improve access to electricity in rural areas that remain off-grid. In countries with abundant wind and sunshine, photovoltaic (PV) solar and wind power systems are key growth components of these national plans (NDRC, 2007; Government of India, 2009; Jacobson and Delucchi, 2011; Komatsu et al., 2011). In particular, China and India have recently established policies that recognize the potential of untapped solar and wind resources. Over two-thirds of China’s land mass enjoy more than 2200 h of sunshine annually and there are ample possibilities for expanding wind power (NDRC, 2007). Similarly, India is well endowed with sunshine and most areas receive 4–7 KWh per m 2 per day (Government of India, 2009). In response, long-term plans are being implemented to rapidly accelerate the pace of adopting PV solar and wind power alternatives. Large public investments are being made to expand the use of these technologies. China has set a goal to obtain 15% of their power needs from renewable sources by 2020 and to focus on rural areas without existing electricity supplies (NDRC, 2007). Similarly, India has established specific goals for renewable energy in areas currently outside the power grid and for distribution of solar lighting systems in rural areas (Government of India, 2009). In fact, rural areas are slated to get the most investment for renewable energy in both the Chinese and Indian national plans. In 2006, only 3% of China’s solar capacity was grid-connected, compared to 88% at the global level (Chang et al., 2009). In India, almost 25% of the 80,000 villages without electricity are not suitable for grid connectivity due to their location and other factors (Shukla, 2007). China has far fewer areas off the electricity grid, but over 700 small village power stations have already been installed. The remaining off-grid areas are considered most suitable for solar and wind applications (Gabler et al., 2006). Renewable energy is particularly well suited to these situations where either household systems or local grids can serve a village or small region. Solar lanterns are also being promoted in rural communities to address problems ranging from climate change to economic development with promises to provide a range of social benefits. In India the ‘‘Lighting a billion lives campaign’’ seeks to distribute 200 million lanterns and calculates that each unit will displace 40–60 l of kerosene annually (TERI, 2010). This goal has been incorporated into India’s national plan, which seeks to distribute 20 million solar lighting systems by 2022. At the same time, there is a growing recognition of the need for storage systems to realize the full potential of these renewable power sources and to improve reliability from fluctuations in power gen- eration. Power storage is also essential to expand power to rural areas where the lack of access to the electricity grid makes decentralized Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol Energy Policy 0301-4215/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.06.021 n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 415 221 8900; fax: þ1 415 221 8903. E-mail address: pgottesfeld@okinternational.org (P. Gottesfeld). Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4939–4946