Journal of Environmental Psychology (1998) 18, 5–29 0272-4944/98/010005+ 25$30·00/0  1998 Academic Press Article No. ps970060 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Journal of SENSE OF PLACE IN DEVELOPMENTAL CONTEXT ROBERT HAY Geography, University College of the Cariboo, Box 3010, Kamloops, B.C. Canada V2C 5N3 Abstract Sense of place differs from place attachment by considering the social and geographical context of place bonds and the sensing of places, such as aesthetics and a feeling of dwelling. Insider status and local ancestry are important toward the development of a more rooted sense of place. Three contexts are used to examine the development of sense of place: residential status in the place (superficial, partial, personal, ancestral, and cul- tural senses of place); age stage, as in development across the life cycle, using a psychodynamic model (after Erikson and Vaillant); and development of the adult pair bond, most often in marriage. Being raised in the place affected feelings of rootedness, particularly for Maori peoples who have ties to tribal territory. Inter- actions were found among place and pair bonds, and multigenerational patterns were noted for ancestral and cultural senses of place, with sense of place styles passed from parent to child. Modern society, due especially to high levels of residential mobility, tends to develop more of a partial or personal sense of place among its members. Sequential stages in the development of a sense of place were most evident among those who were raised in the place and spent most of their lives there: embryonic (childhood to adolescent); commitment (early to mid adulthood); and culmination (mid adulthood to old age). These became apparent in phenomenological and statistical analyses of responses from 270 adult residents of Banks Peninsula, New Zealand, of both Maori and European descent. Additional interviews were conducted with 80 adult out-migrants from the Pen- insula; brief surveys were also done of tourists, long-term campers, holiday home owners, and resident school children on Banks Peninsula. Models of place attachment need to be reconsidered, as does the value of developing a sense of place based more on ancestral and cultural connections. Such a sense of place is con- sidered to be of benefit to individuals and to modern society. 1998 Academic Press INTRODUCTION five groups, from the more mobile to the rooted ones, based on my Banks Peninsula case study. Fol- lowing a review of developmental psychology litera- The development of a sense of place is particularly influenced by residential status. Those with more ture on a life cycle approach, I then undertake a detailed examination of Peninsula residents by age superficial connections to place, such as transients or tourists, do not develop the strong attachment stage, using results from those with long residency for the older stages. In the third context, compari- that is often found among insiders raised in the place who then remain there for most of their life- sons are made with the development of the adult pair bond: literature on adult attachments is times. My empirical research concerning the resi- dents and out-migrants of Banks Peninsula, New reviewed so that parallels and interactions with the development of a sense of place can be noted. The Zealand, (Hay, 1990) has primarily investigated a sense of place that is based more on rootedness and development of a sense of place over a person’s life- time is therefore seen as part of wider human devel- community interaction. Sense of place is considered in a developmental continuum in this article by opmental processes, subject to the social influences of one’s region and society. examining my findings in three different, yet inter- related, contexts. In English-speaking society the term ‘place’ is used rather loosely, either meaning a location, a Because most modern, Western people do not live a lifetime in one place (see Tuan, 1980), I first con- person’s ‘place’ in society or designating one’s feel- ings for a place such as a room, office or home town. sider sense of place by residential status, examining