Integrity and leadership: A multi-level conceptual framework Michael E. Palanski a, ⁎, Francis J. Yammarino b a Saunders College of Business, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States b School of Management and Center for Leadership Studies, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY, United States article info abstract Integrity is frequently used in the management literature as a normative descriptor, especially with regard to leadership. The study of integrity and leadership, though, suffers from a lack of a well-specified theoretical base. This paper addresses this problem by suggesting how integrity, defined as the consistency between words and actions, may be conceptualized at different levels of analysis (individual, group, and organization). Through a series of propositions, we explore how individual leader integrity can affect outcomes such as trust, satisfaction, performance, and follower integrity. We also propose that integrity may be ascribed to groups and organizations, and explore the role that a group leader plays in fostering group- and organization-level integrity and outcomes such as trust and performance. Finally, we consider how leaders may help to resolve cross-level integrity discrepancies. © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Integrity Ethical leadership Trust Multiple levels of analysis Multi-level theory The notion that integrity is important for effective leadership is oft-asserted, perhaps to the point that it is almost an axiom in leadership studies (cf., Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Craig & Gustafson, 1998; Howell & Avolio, 1995; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2002; Peterson, 2004; Simons,1999). Given its relatively lofty position as a normative leadership ideal, it may be somewhat surprising that there is actually very little research about the relationship between leadership and integrity. In particular, research concerning the relationship between leadership and integrity suffers in part from three primary problems. First, there is little agreement in the literature about the meaning of integrity (Becker, 1998; Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2002). It is frequently used to represent a wide variety of ideas and constructs and often overlaps with other terms such as morality, ethics, conscientiousness, honesty, and trustworthiness (Lowe, Cordery, & Morrison, 2004). Second, in spite of its popularity as a normative descriptor, there is actually little extant theory about integrity in the management and leadership literatures. The existing theory is relatively narrow in scope, usually focusing on only a single level of analysis (i.e., the individual leader). The confusion and disagreement about the term likely contribute to the third problem: relatively few empirical studies concerning integrity and leadership. Despite these problems, the sheer popularity of the term as a normative ideal – especially in leadership – indicates that further theoretical development and research is needed. Palanski & Yammarino (2007) have begun to address the first problem – lack of agreement about the meaning and scope of integrity – by suggesting a conceptualization of integrity that helps to sort through the confusion and disagreement about the term. They consider integrity as a virtue and explain ways to disentangle integrity from other closely related virtues such as authenticity, courage, honesty, and fairness. The purpose of this paper is to address the second primary problem in integrity and leadership: a lack of well-specified theory. The approach adopted here is to consider integrity at three primary levels of analysis: individual, group, and organization levels (Dansereau, Alutto, & Yammarino,1984; Kozlowski & Klein, 2000), with particular emphasis on the role that leadership plays with respect to each of these levels. The first step towards developing such a multi-level framework of integrity is to consider how integrity at the group and organization levels of analysis is related to the individual level in terms of structure and function; in The Leadership Quarterly 20 (2009) 405–420 ⁎ Corresponding author. Saunders College of Business, Rochester Institute of Technology,108 Lomb Memorial Drive Rochester, NY 14623, United States. E-mail addresses: mpalanski@saunders.rit.edu (M.E. Palanski), fjyammo@binghamton.edu (F.J. Yammarino). 1048-9843/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.008 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect The Leadership Quarterly journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/leaqua