Mean girls and bad boys: Recent research on gender differences in conduct disorder Olga V. Berkout, John N. Young, Alan M. Gross ⁎ University of Mississippi, United States abstract article info Article history: Received 18 May 2011 Received in revised form 7 June 2011 Accepted 7 June 2011 Available online 13 June 2011 Keywords: Conduct disorder Gender differences Antisocial behavior Research on conduct disorder has historically used primarily male samples. More recently, researchers have made an effort to include female participants. This article examines research published between the years of 2000 and 2011, providing a review of similarities and differences in development and expression of conduct disorder across gender. Many contextual variables, such as negative parenting and impoverished environment, appear to serve as risk factors for both males and females. Girls with conduct disorder differ from boys in associations with internalizing disorders and temperamental variables. Implications for theory and treatment are discussed. Methodological issues and potential ways to improve upon the current body of literature are addressed. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Conduct disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 2. Gender and the development of antisocial behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 3. Parenting variables in CD development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 4. Role of broader environment in CD development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 5. Temperamental variables in CD development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 6. CD comorbidity across gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 7. Differences in underlying temperamental and physiological variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 8. Functional impact of gender differences in CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 9. Summary of recent CD research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 10. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 11. Theoretical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 12. Implications for treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 1. Conduct disorder The American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2000) defines conduct disorder (CD) as a continuing pattern of behavioral disregard for the rights of others and social norms for acceptable conduct. Lying, cruelty towards humans or animals, noncompliance with caregiver rules, and truancy are examples of behaviors included in the CD symptom profile. Onset of the first symptom either prior to or following age ten is used to distinguish a childhood onset from an adolescent onset type (APA, 2000). Antisocial behavior, defined as behavior that is harmful to others and violating social rules, defines CD when it reaches a level of severity and functional impairment that is outside the normative realm (Kazdin, 1987). From a contextual developmental perspective, CD can be conceptualized as an antisocial behavioral repertoire shaped by parental use of harsh and inconsistent discipline, with behavioral difficulties leading to failure at school and rejection by normative peers, followed by subsequent association with a deviant peer group and engagement in antisocial actions (Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989). Temperamental variables, such as callous-unemotional (CU) traits, and neurological/physiological variables, such as autonomic under-arousal have been identified as potential underlying factors influencing the development of CD (Moffitt et al., 2008). Several negative outcomes have been associated with CD. Fergusson, Horwood, and Ridder (2005) found that childhood CD Aggression and Violent Behavior 16 (2011) 503–511 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Psychology, University of Mississippi, PO Box 1848, University, MS 38677, United States. Tel.: +1 662 915 5186; fax: +1 662 915 5398. E-mail address: pygross@olemiss.edu (A.M. Gross). 1359-1789/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.06.001 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Aggression and Violent Behavior