Assessing perfectionism in Russia: Classifying perfectionists with the Short Almost Perfect Scale Kenneth T. Wang a, ⁎, Tatiana M. Permyakova b , Marina S. Sheveleva b a Fuller Theological Seminary, United States b National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia abstract article info Article history: Received 12 October 2015 Received in revised form 24 December 2015 Accepted 27 December 2015 Available online xxxx This study examines perfectionism among a sample of 183 Russian college students. Psychometric properties of the Russian version of the Short Almost Perfect Scale (SAPS) were examined. Confirmatory factor analysis results supported the Russian SAPS factor structure. Results also indicated adequate reliability and validity of the SAPS in this Russian sample. Participants were further classified into different types of perfectionists—adaptive, maladap- tive, and non-perfectionists—using latent profile analysis. As expected, maladaptive perfectionists reported higher levels of both anxiety and depressive mood compared to adaptive perfectionists; however the stress level between these two types of perfectionists was not significantly different. Cultural contexts, practical impli- cations, and future directions were also discussed. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Perfectionism Russia Psychometric properties Depression Anxiety 1. Introduction Perfectionism has become an important personality construct with strong implications for mental health. Perfectionism as a multidi- mensional construct was established in the early 1990s. Since then, researchers have found two distinctive higher-level aspects of perfec- tionism. In a systematic review of perfectionism studies, Stoeber and Otto (2006) summarized and labeled the two aspects of perfectionism as “perfectionistic striving” and “perfectionistic concerns.” Perfectionis- tic striving is defined as demanding perfection of oneself and setting high personal standards. This perfectionistic striving has been viewed by some researchers as positive/adaptive (though a consensus has yet been reached), due to its minimal associations with psychological concerns (Methikalam, Wang, Slaney, & Yeung, 2015) and positive asso- ciations with self-esteem and achievement (Grzegorek, Slaney, Franze, & Rice, 2004). In contrast, perfectionistic concerns can be seen as a tendency to be overly focused on the imperfections, mistakes, criticisms, and perceived discrepancy between actual and ideal achievements. Perfectionistic concerns have been viewed as negative/maladaptive due to its links with mental-health issues, such as depression, anxiety, and eating disorder (Allen & Wang, 2014; Patterson, Wang, & Slaney, 2012). Not only has the multidimensionality of perfectionism been distin- guished by its positive and negative aspects, individuals have been classified into different types of perfectionists (Rice & Ashby, 2007). The different types of perfectionists found in research studies mirrored Hamachek's (1978) clinical observations of normal and neurotic perfec- tionists. While both types of perfectionists strive to achieve very high standards, the neurotic type is often too focused on their deficiencies. In other words, neurotic perfectionists are those who never seem to be satisfied despite doing their best; and rarely feel good about them- selves. In contrast, normal perfectionists are those who are more flexible when their high standards are not attained. The different types of per- fectionists (i.e., adaptive, maladaptive) along with nonperfectionists were first identified in Rice and Slaney's (2002) study with U.S. college students using the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001). The APS-R has been the perfectionism measure most often used to classify individuals into these different types. The APS-R core subscales used to differentiate perfectionists have been Standards and Discrepancy. Standards measure the level of high expectations one has for him or herself. Discrepancy measures the perceived gap between one's ideal standards and performance. Adaptive perfectionists are characterized as having high Standards and relatively low Discrepancy between their standards and perfor- mance. Maladaptive perfectionists have both high Standards and Discrepancy. Individuals who scored low on both Standards and Discrepancy are labeled as nonperfectionists. Widely used, the APS-R measures perfectionism as a multidimensional construct and has re- cently been utilized across cultures. These three types of perfectionists have been subsequently found across Asian Indians (Wang, Puri, Slaney, Methikalam, & Chadha, 2012), Hong Kong adolescents (Wang, Yuen, & Slaney, 2009), and Personality and Individual Differences 92 (2016) 174–179 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Clinical Psychology, Fuller Theological Seminary, United States. E-mail address: ktwang@fuller.edu (K.T. Wang). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.044 0191-8869/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid