Maize provisioning of Ontario Late Woodland turkeys: Isotopic evidence of seasonal, cultural, spatial and temporal variation Zoe Morris a, ⁎, Christine White a , Lisa Hodgetts a , Fred Longstaffe b a Department of Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, Canada b Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, Canada abstract article info Article history: Received 1 August 2015 Received in revised form 7 June 2016 Accepted 9 June 2016 Available online 24 June 2016 The isotopic composition (δ 13 C, δ 15 N) of bone collagen from Ontario Late Woodland archaeological turkeys was compared with that of modern Ontario wild turkeys, and archaeological turkeys from American Southwestern, Mexican and other Woodland sites to determine whether Late Woodland Ontario peoples managed wild turkeys by provisioning them with maize, the only isotopically distinct horticultural plant at that time. Despite the fact that humans from Late Woodland Western Basin and Iroquoian traditions consumed equal amounts of maize, wild turkeys utilized by the two groups exhibit different diets. Western Basin turkeys reflect a C 3 -only diet, whereas Iroquoian turkeys were consuming significant quantities of maize (a C 4 plant). Both groups of archaeo- logical turkey consumed less maize than modern wild turkeys with access to waste left in fields by mechanized agriculture, but because ancient crop yields were much lower, we suggest that Iroquoian turkeys must have been provisioned, probably to create a reliable and nearby hunting niche (Linares, 1976). Archaeological and isotopic evidence supports ethnohistoric accounts that turkeys were hunted after the fall harvest. Iroquoian archaeolog- ical turkey diets, in general, reflect the seasonal consumption of maize that would have been created by cold weather maize provisioning, with the major exception of one turkey from an Attawandaron (Neutral) site that appears to have been fed maize year round. Motivations for provisioning by Middle Ontario Iroquoian people likely included climate change and ritual/ceremonial activity as well as a reliable food supply. Because Iroquoian women controlled the harvest, it is likely that they were instrumental in altering this human/animal interaction, creating a position on the wild/domesticated continuum that is unique in the North American archaeological literature. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Wild turkeys Late Woodland Carbon and nitrogen isotopes 1. Introduction Isotopic studies of archaeological fauna in southwestern Ontario, Canada, (Fig. 2), were originally conducted primarily to reconstruct food webs for use in interpretation human isotopic data (Katzenberg, 1989, 2006; Pfeiffer et al., 2014; van der Merwe et al., 2003). Here we use isotopic zooarchaeology; (1) to enable an understanding of human/animal interactions, especially those related to the wild versus domesticated animal continuum, (2) to infer landscape use/change re- lated to those interactions, and (3) to reconstruct ancient subsistence and hunting strategies and their relationship to cultural ideologies. A widely accepted definition of domestication is the selection of genetic/ morphological modifications for human benefit(Bökönyi, 1969; Branford Oltenacu, 2004; Clutton–Brock, 1994; Harris, 1996; Ingold, 1994). Although this definition enables easier morphological separation of wild and domestic species and examination of how selected changes benefit humans, it leaves little room for understanding other human- animal interactions. For example, management of “wild” populations would not be recognized as domestication, but may still have altered natural distributions and behaviours of a species. Although the domi- nant definition of domestication is rooted primarily in biology, the range and nature of interactions between humans and animals is of con- siderable anthropological interest, and may also be part of the domesti- cation process. For example, with or without intent to domesticate, different human behaviours associated with taming, protective herding and free-range management may initiate the process of modification, and change animal behaviours, including adaptation to evolving human landscapes and consumption of waste products discarded by humans (Harris, 1996; Ingold, 1994; Russell, 2012). The limiting dichot- omy of wild versus domestic, therefore, has justifiably been challenged by many researchers who advocate a more fluid conceptualization or a continuum of this human-animal relationship (Harris, 1996; Ingold, 1994; Russell, 2012; Zeuner, 1963). We provide evidence here for the usefulness of the continuum approach. The eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris, or M.g. silvestris) is native to the eastern United States and southeastern Canada (Fig. 1)(Eaton, 1992; Godfrey, 1966; Schorger, 1966) but was extirpat- ed from Ontario in the 1800s and only re-introduced to the region in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 10 (2016) 596–606 ⁎ Corresponding author at: University of Western Ontario, Department of Anthropology, Social Science Centre Rm. 3326, London, ON N6A3K7, Canada. E-mail address: zhmorris13@gmail.com (Z. Morris). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.06.017 2352-409X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep