LitEracy in thE nEgEv in thE LatE monarchicaL pEriod nadav NA’AMAN m odErn bibLicaL-historicaL rEsEarch has focusEd ExtEnsivELy on the spread of literacy in the kingdom of Judah and the extent of liter- ateness among the elite and inhabitants of the kingdom. Whereas scholars had once sought to derive some information about these matters from the biblical texts, today it is clear that intrabiblical references are of very limited value for investigating the difusion and extent of literacy in the kingdom. The bulk of the data concerning the development of writing and the dissemi- nation of literacy come from archaeological excavations conducted for over a century in what had been Judah’s territory. Such data help us establish the latest possible date for the adoption of alphabetical writing in Judah’s royal court, the stages in the spread of literacy in the kingdom’s capital and periph- eral cities, and the development of the administration in Judah’s territory. First, however, we must consider what these archaeological indings can tell us about the level of literacy of those who wrote these inscriptions. Royal letters and decrees, state administration, juridical decisions, religious instruc- tions, and literary works were all written on papyrus (or parchment), which have long since perished. Hence, clearly, archaeology can shed light neither on their production nor on their distribution among the central cities and elite of the kingdom. The only sources available for research are those inscrip- tions written on nonperishable material, in particular clay, made by various persons for various purposes. Hence, the investigation must start by collect- ing all the data available for research and sorting the epigraphic indings according to function. Only then can we attempt to establish their signii- cance for evaluating the degree and kind of literacy among the inhabitants of the kingdom. We must keep in mind that the ability to write simple texts does not nec- essarily indicate full literacy. Scientiic literature written over the last two decades on the problem of literacy in ancient Israel and Judah has demon- strated the need to clearly distinguish between a basic knowledge of the 47