Urban and Rural Differences in Mortality and Causes of Death in Historical Poland Alicja Budnik* and Gra _ zyna Liczbin ´ ska Department of Anthropology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan ´ , Poland KEY WORDS life tables; neonatal; postneonatal mortality; infant mortality; social status; natural selection ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to document and interpret urban-rural differences in mortality in the past. To this end, we used data on mortality in Wielko- polska, Poland, in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. The data on mortality in rural areas (N ¼ 1,173,910 deceased), small towns (N ¼ 573,903 deceased), and Poznan ´ , the capital of the Wielkopolska region (N ¼ 86,352 deceased), were gathered from origi- nal Prussian statistical yearbooks (Preussische Statis- tik). Causes of death were also analyzed (rural areas, N ¼ 449,576 deceased; small towns, N ¼ 238,365 de- ceased; Poznan ´, N ¼ 61,512 deceased). Mortality meas- ures such as crude death rate (CDR), infant death rate (IDR), and neonatal and postneonatal death rates were calculated. Life tables were constructed for both station- ary and stable population models and measures of the opportunity for natural selection calculated (Crow’s index I m , potential gross reproduction rate R pot , and bio- logical state index I bs ). Relative frequencies of leading causes of death were computed. Stratification depending on the place of residence was evident in all mortality measures as well as in the values of the life tables and the measures of the opportunity for natural selection, but it was reverse of what is observed today in developed countries. In Poznan ´ (a large industrial city), the mortal- ity situation was the least favorable. It was caused by large population density, lack of water supply and sew- age systems (up to 1896), and bad working conditions. The values of CDR ranged between 26.89–31.46, and IDR between 190.6–280.5. Newborn life expectancy (for a stable population model) was 31.6 years, I m ¼ 0.79, R pot ¼ 0.85, and I bs ¼ 0.47. The most common causes of death were tuberculosis, other diseases of the respiratory and circulatory systems, dysentery and diarrhea, and cancer. These diseases were less common in rural areas, so they had the most favorable values of mortality meas- ures (CDR between 22.87–27.32, IDR between 181.8– 219.4, life expectancy of newborn e 0 ¼ 42.12, I m ¼ 0.55, R pot ¼ 0.93, I bs ¼ 0.60). Infectious diseases (other than tuberculosis), frailty at birth, and frailty in old age were the most frequent causes of death in rural areas. Small towns (population <20,000) had a mortality intermediate between city and rural areas. Am J Phys Anthropol 129:294–304, 2006. V V C 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. It is well-documented that social stratification, meas- ured either by socioeconomic status of individual families or by residence in a population center of a particular size, is reflected in the physical growth and development of people, their health status, and some demographic varia- bles. In particular, in many countries at present, slower rates of growth and maturation, and shorter stature, are observed among people living in rural villages rather than in urban centers (Bielicki et al., 1981, 1988; Bogin, 1988; Cameron et al., 1992, 1993; Henneberg and La Velle, 1999; Hulanicka et al., 1990; Jedlin ´ ska, 1985; Komlos and Kriwy, 2002; Pasquet et al., 1999; Pen ˜ a et al., 2003; Spur- geon et al., 1994; Susanne, 1984; Tanner and Eveleth, 1976; Weber et al., 1995). These differences in growth and physical status are in general greater in poorer countries, while in countries having the highest standard of living they tend to disappear (e.g., Australia, Bogin, 1988; Sus- anne, 1984; Tanner and Eveleth, 1976). Urban-rural dif- ferences were also absent in many developing countries, where extensive urban slum areas grew around cities (many countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America; Bogin, 1988; Susanne, 1984, Tanner and Eveleth, 1976). In Poland, rural-urban differences in growth and maturation are still present, even when urban centers are divided into several categories depending on their population size. The degree of urbanization of a particular population center is directly reflected in the biological status of its inhabitants (Bielicki et al., 1981; Waliszko et al., 1980). The influence of urbanization on demographic varia- bles is not straightforward. For example, in India, improvement of living conditions in urban centers is reflected in lower mortality in comparison to rural areas (Krishnaji and James, 2002). On the other hand, irre- spective of many benefits of urbanization, industrializa- tion brings a number of threats to health and increased risk of mortality. For example, in the UK, Australia, or Japan, there is an inverse relationship between degree of urbanization and health (Smith et al., 1995; Steckel, 1999; Steckel and Floud, 1997). Some influence of urbanization and industrialization on health was also noted in historic populations. In stud- ies of skeletal samples, greater longevity was observed in urban centers (e.g., Kozak, 1998). More commonly, however, greater morbidity and greater mortality were observed in urban centers than in rural villages in the past (Kula, 1983; Lewis, 2002; Lewis et al., 1995; Rob- erts and Lewis, 2002). Furthermore, there is a relation- *Correspondence to: Alicja Budnik, Department of Anthropology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznan ´, Poland. E-mail: ambpp@amu.edu.pl Received 27 May 2004; accepted 1 February 2005. DOI 10.1002/ajpa.20288 Published online 1 December 2005 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). V V C 2005 WILEY-LISS, INC. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 129:294–304 (2006)