Interpersonal and intrapersonal skill assessment alternatives: Self-reports, situational-judgment tests, and discrete-choice experiments ☆ Ross Anderson ⁎, Michael Thier, Christine Pitts Educational Policy Improvement Center, 1700 Millrace, Eugene, OR 97403, USA abstract article info Article history: Received 26 September 2015 Received in revised form 17 September 2016 Accepted 23 October 2016 Available online xxxx Responding to a groundswell of researcher and practitioner interest in developing students' interpersonal and in- trapersonal skills, we evaluated three measurement approaches for creativity and global citizenship. We de- signed a 10-criteria evaluative framework from seminal and cutting-edge research to compare extant self- reports and situational-judgment tests (SJTs) from each construct and to design two discrete-choice experiments (DCEs). Our evaluation detailed opportunities, challenges, and tradeoffs presented by each approach's design considerations, possibilities for bias, and validity-related issues. We found that researchers rely heavily upon self-report instruments to measure constructs, such as creative thinking and global citizenship. We found evi- dence that the self-report instruments evaluated were susceptible to some biases more than others. We found that SJTs and DCEs may mitigate some concerns of bias and validity present in self-report when measuring inter- personal and intrapersonal skills. We make recommendations for future development of these formats. © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Creative thinking Discrete-choice experiments Global citizenship Self-report biases Situational-judgment tests 1. Introduction Responding to the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), states' new systems of accountability will include “not less than one indicator of school quality or student success” (Every Student Succeeds Act, 2015, p. 35). To operationalize school quality or student success, ESSA offers vague examples of complex constructs such as student and/or educator engagement, school climate and safety, and postsecondary readiness. Importantly, ESSA allows states to select “any other indicator the State chooses that meets the requirements of this clause” (ESSA, 2015, p. 35). Such flexibility invites states' unique interpretations of the many educational opportunities that may support quality schools and successful students. ESSA tacitly encourages states to focus on the wide array of interper- sonal and intrapersonal skills that decades of research indicate as essen- tial for student success in college, career, citizenship, and building a fulfilling life (National Research Council, 2012). Interpersonal and intra- personal skills (a) span academic disciplines; (b) may be more transfer- rable and applicable for 21st-century students than the highly esteemed cognitive skills gained through instruction in mathematics and reading (National Research Council, 2012); (c) are at least equal to cognitive skills in their ability to predict postsecondary success (Conley & Darling-Hammond, 2013); (d) are more malleable than cognitive skills (Heckman, 2000); and (e) predict long-term academic and economic outcomes (Soland, Stecher, & Hamilton, 2013). Yet, measures of such skills are neither fit to inform classroom-level decisions nor do they serve accountability purposes (Duckworth & Yeager, 2015). The current study investigates promising approaches that need greater attention to improve research, support schools, and shift accountability priorities. 1.1. K–12 priorities Both research findings and employers' calls to foster interpersonal and intrapersonal skills have leveraged some school systems and states to prioritize these skills through statutory requirements and instruc- tional agendas. For instance, Maine graduates in the Class of 2019 will need to demonstrate proficiency in five Guiding Principles that capture a broad set of skills and dispositions important to college, career, and citizenship readiness. Maine expects its alumni to be integrative and in- formed thinkers, self-directed and lifelong learners, clear and effective communicators, responsible and involved citizens, and creative and practical problem solvers (Fukuda, Anderson, & Lench, 2015; Maine Department of Education, 2015). Despite policy changes, the infancy of literature on cultivating inter- personal and intrapersonal skills across K-12 leaves opportunities for systemic innovations. Many interpersonal-intrapersonal domains over- lap with conceptualizations that other states, districts, and organizations have created through industry and higher education partnerships. Still, Learning and Individual Differences 53 (2017) 47–60 ☆ Ross Anderson is Senior Lead Researcher and Michael Thier and Christine Pitts are Research and Policy Fellows at the Educational Policy Improvement Center in Eugene, Oregon. ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: ross_anderson@epiconline.org (R. Anderson). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.017 1041-6080/© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Learning and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lindif