Forensic facial reconstruction: Nasal projection in Brazilian adults Silvia Virginia Tedeschi-Oliveira, Thiago Leite Beaini *, Rodolfo Francisco Haltenhoff Melani Faculdade de Odontologia da Universidade de Sa ˜o Paulo Department of Social Dentistry Av Lineu Prestes, 2227 CEP 05508-000, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil 1. Introduction Forensic Facial Reconstruction can be defined as an auxiliary technique to human identification. It can aid the investigations of unknown bodies, as images, produced from a reconstruction of an unidentified skull, can be broadcast by the media and recognized by a family member [1]. However, it is important to consider that many of individual variations found in humans have no relation to bone size and shape but are relevant to the concept of identity of a face. Variations such as birthmarks, scars and facial expressions may not be predicted by the analysis of the skull, so the exact representation of the face is greater than the scope of forensic techniques and scientific data alone. Nevertheless, the scientific approximation of facial character- istics depends on the knowledge of population traits and averages over soft tissue thickness, overlying known craniometric points, also eyes and lips position, among others. Using these guidelines, one can successfully produce images that resemble the relation- ships of the cutaneous portions in the living person. Mean values of these tissue data are often used when reproducing a face, which can add a certain level of imprecision [2,3]. For the same points, the thickness presents important variations, depending on the technique used for measurements, which are demonstrated in most studies [1,4–14]. Also, the level of errors within the studies is statistically acceptable, but they add a level of imprecision that interferes with the success of the field [2,15]. The nose has remarkable cognitive importance in facial recognition [16], as it often connects an individual to their morphology. However, the soft tissue components that define the nose’s shape and projection have no known bone portion correspondence [16–18], and little of its appearance remains after tissue decomposition [19]. Therefore, nose reconstruction has been a target of constant questioning, as it lacks scientific validation in study and application of facial-reconstruction techniques [17]. With aging, many changes occur to facial tissues and must be taken into account during Facial Reconstruction, as they are likely to change the facial expression. Nasal projection increases with age, in a downward and forward direction [13,20–24]. This growth in the nasal region occurs even after the age of 20 years, considered the age when an individual’s bone growth is complete. Most of this growth occurs until early adulthood, but the exact age varies according to individual features and may continue even after, although with less intensity [20,24,25]. Sex-related differences appear only after childhood, when facial growth accentuates the prominence of the nose in boys. Soares and Andrade [16], Enlow [21] and also Inada et al. [26] concluded that Forensic Science International 266 (2016) 123–129 ARTICLE INFO Article history: Received 25 November 2015 Received in revised form 1 May 2016 Accepted 6 May 2016 Available online 13 May 2016 Keywords: Forensic science Forensic anthropology Anthropometry Human identification Facial reconstruction Nose ABSTRACT The nose has a marked cognitive influence on facial image; however, it loses its shape during cadaveric decomposition. The known methods of estimating nasal projection using Facial Reconstruction are lacking in practicality and reproducibility. We attempted to relate the points Rhinion, Pronasale and Prosthion by studying the angle formed by straight lines that connect them. Two examiners measured this angle with the help of analysis and image-processing software, Image J, directly from cephalometric radiographs. The sample consisted of 300 males, aged between 24 and 77 years, and 300 females, aged 24 to 69 years. The proposed angle ranged from 808 to 1008 in both sexes and all ages. It was considered possible to use a 908 angle from projections of the Rhinion and Prosthion points in order to determine the Pronasale position, as well as to estimate the nasal projection of Brazilian adults. ß 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. * Corresponding author. E-mail address: tbeaini@gmail.com (T.L. Beaini). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Forensic Science International journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.05.004 0379-0738/ß 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.