JONATHAN GERSHUNY University of Essex MICHAEL BITTMAN University of New England* JOHN BRICE University of Essex Exit, Voice, and Suffering: Do Couples Adapt to Changing Employment Patterns? What is the long-term effect of the emerging pre- dominance of the dual-earner family? This study uses data from 3 national household panel surveys—the British Household Panel Survey (N ¼ 16,044), the German Socioeconomic Panel (N ¼ 14,164), and the U.S. Panel Study of In- come Dynamics (N ¼ 7,423)—which provide, for the first time, clear and direct longitudinal evidence of change in the balance of domestic labor within couples: evidence that women make large adjustments in their domestic work time immediately upon entering full-time paid work and that men exhibit a less obvious pattern of lagged adaptation, showing larger increases in domestic work in successive years. Advanced societies all face a similar issue. The two-earner family has become the predominant form: Has this led to a reallocation of domestic work responsibilities? Some assume a smooth progress to gender equality in work burdens. It might be expected that women’s growing earn- ings will gradually increase their domestic bar- gaining power, and this in turn will ultimately compel men to share equally in child care and housework (Bittman, England, Sayer, Folbre, & Matheson, 2003). Others argue that inequality will persist and that social processes constrain change (Brines, 1994; Greenstein, 2000). Struc- turalists believe that these gender divisions reflect institutionalized gender norms (Acker, 1988; Blumberg, 1991; Delphy & Leonard, 1986). Constructionists argue that the enactment of the gendered division of labor is a crucial element in the creation of ‘‘the deepest sense of what one is—one’s gender identity’’ (Goffman, 1977, p. 315; see also Berk, 1985; West & Zimmerman, 1987). The evidence seems to support the arguments for the persistence of gender inequality. All the available studies identify the dual-burden phe- nomenon: Even full-time employed women still bear a disproportionate responsibility for house- work and child care (e.g., Bianchi, Milkie, Sayer, & Robinson, 2000). We propose an al- ternative position, however, consistent with aspects of all the previously outlined views. We focus on the process of change over time. Indi- viduals act within a social context that they inherit. This inheritance will inhibit, in the short term, achievement of the fair reallocation of domestic tasks that should follow from the rapid emergence of women into the paid labor mar- ket. Nevertheless, we argue, over the longer term, women who carry the dual burden have Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom. *School of Social Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia (michael.bittman@une. edu.au). Key Words: employment, gender, housework. 656 Journal of Marriage and Family 67 (August 2005): 656–665