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SPARACELLO V.S., MARCHI D., SHAW C.S. 2014. The importance of considering fibular robusticity when inferring the mobility patterns of past populations In: Carlson K., Marchi D. (Eds.), Reconstructing mobility: environmental, behavioral, and morphological determinants. New York, Springer, pp. 91-111. SPARACELLO V.S., ROBERTS C.A., CANCI A., MOGGI-CECCHI J., MARCHI D. In Review. Insights on the paleoepidemiology of ancient tuberculosis from the structural analysis of postcranial remains from the Ligurian Neolithic (northwestern Italy). Int J of Paleopat. STEINBOCK R. 1976. Paleopathological diagnosis and interpretation. Charles C Thomas, Springfield. TROTTER M., GLESER G.C. 1952. Estimation of stature from long bones of American whites and negroes. Am J Phys Anthropol 10: 463-514. VARALLI A. 2015. Ricostruzione delle strategie di sussistenza in Italia durante letà del Bronzo: il contributo delle analisi isotopiche. University of Aix-Marseille, University of Florence. VARALLI A., GOUDE G., DEL LUCCHESE A. 2012-2013. Dal Neolitico allEtà del Ferro: indagine paleonutrizionale su alcune popolazioni della Liguria attraverso un approccio isotopico. Archeol in Lig 5: 11-19. CN stable isotope ratios have been recorded on Upper Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age communities (Gravettian: Arene Candide; Neolithic: Arene Candide, Pollera, Bergeggi, Pian del Ciliegio and Garbu du Surdu; Bronze Age: Pertuso, Buco del Diavolo) (Pettitt et al. 2003; Goude et al. 2011; 2011-2013; Varalli et al. 2012-2013; Varalli 2015). The diachronic analysis shows that important food habit modifications occurred during Prehistory. C and N data of the Upper Palaeolithic show marine consumption up to 30%. The first change is related to the onset of farming. During the Neolithic fish constitutes a minor resource compared to terrestrial animals. Another change is evidenced at the end of the Bronze Age where C 4 plants is one of the staple foods (Setaria italica, Panicum miliaceum) is detected in human bone collagen only (Fig. 5). The importance of such plant in diet seems to be different according to individual. Alessandra Varalli 1,2 Vitale Sparacello 3 Damiano Marchi 4,5 Gwenaëlle Goude 1 1 Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Ministère de la culture et de la communication, LAMPEA UMR 7269, MMSH. 5, rue du Château de lHorloge - B.P. 647 13094 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 2, France. 2 Dipartimento di Biologia, Laboratorio di Antropologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze. Via del Proconsolo, 12. 50122 Firenze, Italia. 3 Department of Archaeology, South Road, Durham. DH1 3LE 4 Department of Biology, University of Pisa, via Derna, 1, 56126 Pisa, Italy. Mail corresponding author: alessandravaralli@gmail.com Acknowledgements: the authors thank Dr. V. Formicola, Dr. A. Del Lucchese, Dr. P. Garibaldi, Dr. A. De Pascale, Dr. L. Marchi for the authorizations to sample human and animal remains; G. André for laboratory support at LAMPEA. SAA have been realized thanks to the Centre of Excellence LabexMed- The human and social sciences at the interdisciplinary centre for the Mediterranean with the reference 10-LABX-0090. This project has been funded by the French Government, administrated by the Agence National de la Recherche as a project of Investissement dAǀenir A*MIDEX with this reference n°ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02, Marie-Curie European Union COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellowship [under EU grant agreement number 267209], Wolfson Institute for Health and Wellbeing Small Grant Scheme, and BABAO Small Grants 2015. Liguria, a region located in the north-western Italian coast, is well known for the abundance of archaeological findings dated to the Pre- and Protohistoric periods, and for the good preservation of human remains (Fig. 1). First excavations and studies have been conducted at the end of the 19 th century. In the last 30 years, research increased and the use of cutting-edge methods allowed to get new bioarchaeological data. This presentation aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the anthropological data presently available, taking into account doctoral dissertations, past scientific publications and recent unpublished studies. Research investigating biomechanical aspects, diet and subsistence practices, and pathological evidence is summarized. Nine sites are considered and offer a diachronic overview from the Final Pleistocene to the Early Iron Age (ca. 24,000-800 BC). Different methodologies were used in the various approaches. Cross-sectional geometry (CSG) has been applied to make inferences – via changes in robusticity of long bones – on changing lifestyles, mobility levels, and sexual division of labour. To explore dietary patterns, stable isotopes analysis from bone collagen have been performed. Furthermore, paleopathological analyses took into account the presence of congenital and infectious disease at the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, as well as oral health. Fig. 1. Map of Northern Italy. Zoom on the Liguria di Ponente with the sites cited in the text. Methods - C and N stable isotopes ratios were recorded on 52 human and 68 animal bone collagen. The stable isotope ratios allow to evaluate animal protein intake and determined the environment exploited and specific resources consumed as C 3 ,C 4 , legumes, marine food (Ambrose 1993, Bocherens and Drucker 2003; OCoŶŶell and Hedges 2001). Interpretation of stable isotope data of humans relies on material preservation and the capacity to define local isotopic baselines (eg. DeNiro 1985; Goude and Fontugne, in review). High mobility was probably due to a subsistence economy based on short- distance transhumant pastoralism rather than sedentary agriculture. This subsistence economy was probably dictated by the geomorphology of Liguria, which lacks terrains apt for agriculture or pastures. Recent analyses taking into account also the fibula confirm that terrain properties, in addition to mobility, might have had a strong influence on Ligurian postcranial adaptations (Sparacello et al., 2014). In fact, the tibio-fibular complex of Ligurians (Gravettian, Epigravettian, or Neolithic) resembles the one of cross- country runners or hockey players (Fig. 4, Sparacello et al., in prep). In addition, many individuals fall beyond the range of modern athletes. Future research will investigate activity changes linked to the later shift in agricultural type evidenced by isotopic analysis. Methods - Cross-sectional geometry studies the sections of long bones using the beam theory, and is able to reconstruct the level of bending rigidity of the diaphysis, which is linked to in-vivo loadings. Review in Ruff et al. 2006. Methods -Reference for osteometrics is Martin and Saller (1957). Estimation of stature is calculated considering long bones (Trotter and Gleser 1952). Sex and age are mainly evaluated following Ferembach et al. (1979). Pathological studies refers to Steinbock (1976), Ortner (2003), and Roberts and Buikstra (2003). Anthropological studies have been conducted in most of Prehistoric Ligurian human groups; for this review we selected some Upper Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age sites (Gravettian: Arene Candide; Neolithic: Pollera, Bergeggi, Pian del Ciliegio and Garbu du Surdu; Bronze Age: Pertuso, Buco del Diavolo) (e.g. Parenti and Messeri 1962; Formicola 1986a, 1986b; Bareschino et al. 2004; Silvestri 2009-2010). Upper Palaeolithic samples show a low incidence of dental and bone pathologies. The presence of x-linked hereditary rickets in one, possibly two individuals (at Arene Candide, MNI = 20) suggests high incidence of congenital metabolic dysfunctions, likely consequence of low genetic diversity (Formicola 1995; Formicola et al. 1990). Fig. 5. δ 13 C et δ 15 N human and animal values of Upper Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age sites (black dots: Palaeolithic humans; blue dots: Neolithic humans; green dots: Early-Middle Bronze Age; orange dots: Final bronze Age humans. Animals are represented by median values and percentiles). Fig. 10. Grotta Pollera. Lumbar vertebral body showing ample focal resorption (Po 21, 5 yo) (Sparacello and Roberts, in prep.).  Element of continuity:  High mobility during Prehistory influence of the local geomorphology  Significant sexual dimorphism in robusticity  Low genetic diversity  Element of discontinuity:  Increase of terrestrial resources at the onset of farming  Introduction of new crops from LBA (e.g. millets)  Increase of pathologies from Neolithic, including infectious diseases This first synthesis on bioarchaeological data acquired to date calls for:  The development of multi-proxy analyses (e.g. -integrate research on dental calculus and botanical studies to explore new crops introduction, diffusion and consumption; e.g. -test low genetic diversity through non metric traits and ancient DNA analysis)  Investigate further sites/periods to identify definite diachronic trends for this region  Evaluate the impact of subsistence strategies changes on heath status (e.g. correlation between cereal intake and oral pathologies) Appreciate mutual influence between diet, health and economic activities Fig. 2. Humeral bilateral asymmetry: ratio of the mechanical rigidity of the dominant vs non-dominant humerus. Ligurian individuals are labeled in the Gravettian (EUP) and Epigravettian (LUP). Fig. 3. Femoral shape index in prehistoric samples: ratio of the mechanical rigidity in the antero-posterior vs medio-lateral plane. It is considered an indicator of mobility levels. Biomechanical studies have been performed on Upper Palaeolithic and several Neolithic Ligurian sites (Gravettian and Epigravettian: Arene Candide, Balzi Rossi; Neolithic: Arene Candide, Arma ˆˇll’Aquila, Pollera, Bergeggi, Cavernetta Boragni, Pian del Ciliegio) (Marchi 2008; Marchi et al. 2006, 2011; Sparacello and Marchi 2008; Sparacello et al. 2014). Results suggest extremely high upper limb asymmetry in the Mid and Late Upper Palaeolithic, compatible with hunting via throwing. Despite a marked decrease in the Neolithic, there is still significant sexual dimorphism, probably due to division of labour (males more frequently using axes, females more involved in cereal grinding using querns; Fig. 2). The analysis of the lower limb suggests that the Ligurian Neolithic people deviate from the European trend of decreasing mobility, especially males (Marchi et al. 2011; Sparacello et al. 2014). Fig. 4. Plot of canonical scores from a discriminant analysis based on tibial and fibular CSG data from athletes (Shaw and Stock 2009) and prehistoric individuals (Sparacello et al., in preparation). Discriminant functions can be approximated as indicating increased mobility (1) and increased medio-lateral loading (2). Ligurian Neolithic, Gravettian and Epigravettian individuals from Arene Candide and Balzi Rossi, fall within or surpass the range of cross-country runners or hockey players. Fig. 8. Grotta Pollera. Pott's spine in an adult (Po 22, adult) (Sparacello, unpub.). Fig. 9. Grotta Pollera. Thoracic vertebral body showing ample focal resorption (Po 21, 5 yo) (Sparacello and Roberts, in prep.). Conversely, Neolithic and Bronze Age humans show high incidence of osteoarthritis and enthesopaties (e.g. Formicola 1997; Formicola and Canci 2003). Still, low genetic diversity is supposed for these later periods and attested by some oral and osteological evidence (e.g. Bareschino et al. 2004). Dental pathologies are frequent for these prehistoric periods (caries, tooth loss) supporting the dietary changes observed and the increase of cereal consumption and shifts to cooking in pots which add cariogenic factor. Furthermore, signs of infectious disease have been detected: osteoarticular tuberculosis in the Ligurian Neolithic skeletal series has been reported by Formicola et al. (1987) and Canci et al (1996). A recent survey discovered two new cases in Grotta Pollera alone, including a rare case of multifocal skeletal TB in a 5-years-old (Sparacello and Roberts in prep) (Fig. 6-10). Skeletal TB occurs in only 1-5% (Sparacello et al. in review) of modern cases. The actual prevalence of pulmonary TB could have been much higher among Ligurian Neolithic people, and could have seriously impacted on their well-being. Fig. 7. Grotta Pollera. Lumbar vertebra showing severe porosity and collapse of the body (Po 22, adult) (Sparacello, unpub.). Fig. 6. Grotta Pollera. The proximal left humerus showing resorption and disruption of the growth plate, compared with the right one (Po 21, 5 yo) (Sparacello and Roberts, in prep.). Conclusions Prospects