Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in commercially available infant formulae in Nigeria: Estimation of dietary intakes and risk assessment Chukwujindu M.A. Iwegbue a,b,⇑ , Justy N. Edeme a , Godswill O. Tesi a , Francisca I. Bassey c , Bice S. Martincigh b , Godwin E. Nwajei a a Metals and Trace Organics Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Delta State University, P.M.B 1 Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria b School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Private Bag X54001, Durban 4000, South Africa c Department of Chemistry, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross-Rivers State, Nigeria article info Article history: Received 11 February 2014 Accepted 29 June 2014 Available online 15 July 2014 Keywords: PAHs Risk assessment Margin of exposure Daily intakes Infant formulae Nigeria abstract The concentrations and profiles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commercially available infant formulae and follow-up formulae in Nigeria were determined with a view to providing information on the health risks to children from the consumption of these infant foods. The concentrations of PAHs were measured by means of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) after extraction by ultrasonication with acetone/dichloromethane and clean-up. The concentrations of the R16 PAHs in these infant formulae ranged from 0.102 to 1.98 lg kg 1 , 0.054–1.98 lg kg 1 , 0.081–2.54 lg kg 1 and 0.51–0.70 lg kg 1 for infants of ages 0–6 months, 6–12 months, 1–3 years and 0–12 months respectively. The concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) in all samples investigated were below the 1 lg kg 1 European Commission permissible limit for BaP in foods meant for infants. The estimated daily intake of PAHs based on the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) suggested indicators of occurrence and effects of PAHs in foods were not detected (nd) to 2.67 ng BaP kg 1 bw day 1 , nd-5.29 ng PAH2 kg 1 bw day 1 , nd-11.20 ng PAH4 kg 1 bw day 1 and nd-34.96 ng PAH8 kg 1 bw day 1 . The estimated margin of exposure (MOE) values: BaP-MOE, PAH2-MOE, PAH4-MOE and PAH8-MOE values were greater than 10,000 which indicates that there are no health risks from the consumption of these products by infants. The concentrations and dietary exposure to PAHs from these products were similar to values reported in the literature for European Communities. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of hydro- phobic organic compounds that are known to have mutagenic, genotoxic and carcinogenic properties and long-range transporta- tion and deposition characteristics. PAHs consist of two or more fused aromatic rings in a linear, angular or cluster formation that are introduced into the environment primarily by incomplete combustion or heat-induced decomposition of organic matter (Tuteja et al., 2011; Alomirah et al., 2009) and from other anthro- pogenic processes such as inputs from oil spills, ship traffic, urban run-off, waste water discharges as well as atmospheric fallouts of vehicle exhaust and industrial stack emissions (Qiu et al., 2009). PAHs have relatively low water solubility and are highly lipophilic. Out of more than 100 PAH compounds that exist in nature, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and European Union have identified the following 16 most frequently occurring/or dangerous PAHs as priority pollutants. They include naphthalene (Nap), acenaphthylene (Acy), acenaphthene (Ace), fluorene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phe), anthracene (Ant), fluoranthene (Flt), pyrene (Pyr), benzo(a)anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chy), benzo(b)fluoranthene (BbF), benzo(k)fluoranthene (BkF), benzo(a)- pyrene (BaP), indeno(1,2,3-cd)perylene (IndP), dibenzo(a,h)anthra- cene (DahA) and benzo(ghi)perylene (BghiP). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has further classified benzo(a)pyrene as group 1A (carcinogenic to humans), dibenzo (a,h)anthracene as group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans) and benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranth- ene, chrysene and indeno(1,2,3-cd)perylene as group 2B (possibly http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2014.06.026 0278-6915/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. ⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Private Bag X54001, Durban 4000, South Africa. Tel.: +234 8033864109. E-mail address: maxipriestley@yahoo.com (C.M.A. Iwegbue). Food and Chemical Toxicology 72 (2014) 221–227 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Food and Chemical Toxicology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchemtox