Industrial Crops and Products 60 (2014) 335–342 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Industrial Crops and Products jo ur nal home p age: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop Method for obtaining three products with different properties from fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed  Bryan R. Moser a,∗ , Valtcho D. Zheljazkov b , Erica L. Bakota a , Roque L. Evangelista a , Archana Gawde c , Charles L. Cantrell c , Jill K. Winkler-Moser a , Alexander N. Hristov d , Tess Astatkie e , Ekaterina Jeliazkova b a United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA b Sheridan Research and Extension Center, University of Wyoming, 663 Wyarno Road, Sheridan, WY 82801, USA c United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural Products Utilization Research, P.O. Box 8048, University, MS 38677, USA d The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Animal Science, 324 Henning Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA e Dalhousie University, Faculty of Agriculture, 50 Pictou Road, P.O. Box 550, Truro NS B2N 5E3, Canada a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 15 April 2014 Received in revised form 10 June 2014 Accepted 11 June 2014 Keywords: Distillation Essential oil Foeniculum vulgare Lipid Steam distillation a b s t r a c t The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of distillation time (DT; 15–1080 min) on yield, composition, and antioxidant capacity of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed essential oil (EO) as well as on the yield, composition, and properties of lipids extracted from steam-distilled fennel seeds (15–600 min). EO yield increased with increasing DT to a maximum of 1.375% at 1080 min. The principal constituent was estragole, comprising 82–91% of the overall content. Other species included limonene, fenchone, and anethole. Antioxidant capacity of the EO was essentially unaffected by DT, with capacities ranging from 11.2 to 20.6 mol Trolox/g. The yield of lipids extracted from steam distilled fennel seeds was unaffected by DT and ranged from 21.7 to 22.8 mass%. The fatty acid composition was also unaffected by DT, and the major constituents were petroselenic (67.0–71.3%) and oleic (12.0–16.4%) acids. The concentrations of tocopherols, tocotrienols, and phytosterols were unaffected by DT whereas unsaponifiables and EO con- tent in lipids decreased with increasing DT. Acid value, kinematic viscosity, peroxide value, and pour point increased with increasing DT, whereas density decreased. Induction period, heteroatom content, and Gardner color were unaffected by DT. As DT increased, in vitro degradability of defatted, steam-distilled fennel seeds decreased. In summary, longer DT negatively impacted feed quality of steam-distilled, defatted seed meal and lipid quality but did not significantly affect EO composition and antioxidant capacity. Published by Elsevier B.V. 1. Introduction Essential oils (EOs) are volatile secondary metabolites with applications in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, incense, aromatherapy, food and beverage flavorings, and household cleaning products. EOs are also noteworthy for antioxidant and biological activities, including as bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, antiparasitical, and  Disclaimer: Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply rec- ommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 309 681 6511; fax: +1 309 681 6524. E-mail address: Bryan.Moser@ars.usda.gov (B.R. Moser). insecticidal agents (Bakkali et al., 2008; Bozin et al., 2006; Daferera et al., 2000; Dapkevicius et al., 1998; Lis-Balchin et al., 1998; Nerio et al., 2010). Notable examples of commercialized EOs include those from eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globules), lavender (genus Lavandula) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) (Lis-Balchin et al., 1998; Nerio et al., 2010). The most common industrial methods for isolation of EOs are steam distillation (SD) and hydrodistillation (Hawthorne et al., 1993; Jimenez-Carmona et al., 1999; Luque de Castro et al., 1999; Smith, 2002). Other methods include extraction with organic sol- vents, supercritical CO 2 and superheated (subcritical) water as well as ultrasound and microwave-assisted extraction (Dapkevicius et al., 1998; Hawthorne et al., 1993; Jimenez-Carmona et al., 1999; Lucchesi et al., 2004; Luque de Castro et al., 1999). Several EOs are found in lipid-bearing seeds from the Apiaceae family, including anise (Pimpinella anisum), coriander (Coriandrum http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.06.017 0926-6690/Published by Elsevier B.V.