Vol.:(0123456789) French Politics (2019) 17:1–25 https://doi.org/10.1057/s41253-019-00079-5 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Varieties of international co‑operation: France’s “fexilateral” policy in the context of Brexit Samuel B. H. Faure 1 Published online: 2 February 2019 © Springer Nature Limited 2019 Abstract The aim of this article is to articulate conceptually the varieties of international co-operation in which states take part. In theories of international relations, inter- national co-operation is generally analysed either through instances of multilat- eral collaboration (EU, UN, NATO), through bilateral alliances (Franco-German relationship), or through “minilateral” clubs (G7). Yet the literature does not ofer a concept for linking these three models of international co-operation. Neverthe- less, in practice, states simultaneously use varieties of international co-operation to address global public problems such as climate change, migration crises, and the fght against terrorism. To address this shortcoming, it is necessary to shift the focus from each type of international co-operation to their “interstices”, in order to iden- tify the relations between the types of international co-operation and their reciprocal efects on decisions taken by the state. It is to do this that the concept of “fexilat- eralism” has been developed. This neologism describes the policy through which a state simultaneously implements varieties of international co-operation to address a public problem. A state’s “fexilateral” policy, or fexilateralism, is operational- ised by revealing four varieties of international co-operation: bilateralism (co-oper- ation between two states), minilateralism (co-operation within an exclusive group of states), multilateralism (co-operation within an inclusive group of states), and unilateralism (no co-operation). The concept of fexilateralism is applied through the case of France’s defence procurement policy in the context of the Brexit nego- tiations. By taking seriously varieties of international co-operation, the concept of fexilateralism goes a step further to explain the policy-making and implementation of state’s foreign policy. Keywords Brexit · International co-operation · Flexilateralism · Diferentiated integration · Defence procurement policy * Samuel B. H. Faure samuel.bh.faure@alumni.harvard.edu 1 Sciences Po Saint-Germain, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France