24 Action Research BRIAN D. CHRISTENS, VICTORIA FAUST, JENNIFER GADDIS, PAULA TRAN INZEO, CAROLINA S. SARMIENTO, AND SHANNON M. SPARKS K urt Lewin (1946) introduced the term action research as a practical response to complex and intractable social issues. He defined it as com- parative research on social action and its effects that could lead to further social action. Social research, he argued, had made noteworthy progress at discovering general laws that governed behav- ior such as racism and at what he called “diagno- sis” (p. 37) of the specific character of situations. There was a need, however, for a complementary area of research that was engaged every step of the way with social planning and social action pro- cesses. Drawing on examples of research collabo- rations with civic and institutional actors seeking to improve intergroup relations, he explained that this form of social research “proceeds in a spiral of steps each of which is composed of a circle of plan- ning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action” (p. 38). Action research could demonstrate the potential for synergy between practitioners and social scientists for achieving social progress, although he recognized that it would require “train- ing large numbers of social scientists who can han- dle scientific problems but are also equipped for the delicate task of building productive, hard-hitting teams with practitioners” (p. 42). This chapter defines action research as an approach that orchestrates cyclical processes of action and research that are simultaneously con- tributing to addressing practical concerns related to social issues and to the goals of social science. We believe that action research is especially well suited for community-based research designed to con- tribute to community capacity building and dem- ocratic social change efforts. Our chapter begins with an introduction to action research in which we provide brief examples of action research projects conducted on a variety of issues and in a variety of contexts. The next section focuses on the design and conduct of action research. In that section, we offer design principles for conducting action research in community and organizational set- tings. This is followed by a case study of an action research partnership with a community organiz- ing network working on multiple issues, including mass incarceration, immigration, and transit. We conclude with a call for more transdisciplinary action research on pressing social issues. INTRODUCTION TO ACTION RESEARCH In introducing and developing the concept of action research, Lewin (1946) could sense that he was on to something big: “I could not help but feel that the close integration of action, training, and research holds tremendous possibilities for the field of intergroup relations. I would like to pass on this feeling to you” (p. 43). The fact that similar mod- els for action research have emerged in many dis- ciplines and in different parts of the world suggests that his enthusiasm was well founded. Although all of these models have themes in common—for instance, a focus on collaborative efforts to identify solutions to social problems—there is substantial variation in the relative emphases of these models. For example, models for participatory action research that have been influential in South America (e.g., Fals-Borda & Rahman, 1991) have tended to emphasize empowerment and critical consciousness of participants in the service of soci- etal transformation and liberation of oppressed groups. Some strands of action research in North