GIS-Based On-Road Vehicular Emission Inventory for Lucknow, India Dhirendra Singh 1 ; Sheo Prasad Shukla 2 ; Mukesh Sharma 3 ; Sailesh N. Behera 4 ; Devendra Mohan 5 ; Narendra Bahadur Singh 6 ; and Govind Pandey 7 Abstract: Megacities in India (population more than 10 million) have taken actions to control air-pollution emissions. However, the second- level cities (population between one and 10 million) have not drawn an action plan, and people face serious air pollution in these cities. For one such city, Lucknow, a geographic information system (GIS)-based methodology for emission inventory of on-road vehicles has been developed. The pollutants include: sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ); oxides of nitrogen (NO x ); carbon monoxide (CO); particulate matter (PM); 1,3 butadiene; formaldehyde; acetaldehyde; total aldehydes; and total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Video recording was done at nine road intersections of varying land-use patterns to assess traffic count and vehicle kilometer travel. Parking lot surveys were carried out for assessing engine type, vehicle age, etc. and to arrive at a suitable net emission factor for each vehicle category. The 2-wheelers (2-Ws) and 4-wheelers (4-Ws) dominate the total traffic with an 83% share and are main sources of NO x (46%) and CO (77%). The heavy duty vehicles (HDVs: buses and trucks), although they account for only 2% of the vehicle fleet, emit disproportionately high emissions (23% of SO 2 , 36% of NO x , and 28% of PM). Spatial cell (2 × 2 km)-wise emission inventory of pollutants indicates that the city center has the highest pollutant emissions resulting from a large number of vehicles, mostly 2-Ws, 3-Ws, and passenger cars. The inventory information can be used for short-term and long-term planning to reduce emissions. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000244. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers. Author keywords: Emissions estimation; Lucknow; India; Vehicular emission inventory; Traffic; Air pollution. Introduction Air pollution has emerged as a major challenge, particularly in urban areas. The problem becomes more complex due to the multi- plicity and complexity of the air polluting source mix (e.g., indus- tries, automobiles, generators, domestic fuel burning, road side dusts, construction activities, etc.). Indian cities have experienced a phenomenal growth in terms of population, industry, and ve- hicles. The burgeoning population coupled with rapid growth in terms of vehicles, construction, and energy consumption has re- sulted in serious environmental concerns in Indian cities. At the urban level, air quality is severely affected by vehicular emissions (Sharma and Khare 2001; Shukla and Sharma 2008). Traffic con- gestion increases emissions from on-road vehicles (Litman 2013), as vehicles spend more time on-road. Vehicular emission in terms of mass is the major contributor (over 50%) among the various sources in urban areas: Delhi (64%) and Mumbai (52%) (Gupta 2006). A study by Sood (2012) and a national report on source apportionment (CPCB 2011), clearly indicate a large vehicular emission load: 60–70% of carbon monoxide (CO), 30–50% of oxides of nitrogen (NO x ), and 20–30% of suspended particulate matter in many cities (Delhi, Kanpur, Chennai, etc.). In addition, all vehicular emissions occur at ground level and therefore will have a much greater impact on air quality than elevated sources. Megacities (population more than 10 million) like Delhi have taken actions in nearly all sectors to control air pollution over the past two decades—relocation of polluting industries, introduc- tion of improved emission norms for vehicles, phasing out lead from gasoline, reduction of sulfur in diesel and benzene in gasoline, a city public transport fleet running on compressed natural gas (CNG), and banning of 15-year-old commercial vehicles (CPCB 2011). However, second-level cities, having population between one and 10 million, are yet to initiate air pollution control activities. Lucknow, the capital city of the state of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1; 26°52′ N latitude and 80°56′ E longitude), is one such city that has been selected as a study area. In Lucknow, air pollution levels for PM 10 (particles of size less than 10 μm) have exceed both 24-h and annual national air quality standards by a factor of 2–3 over the past five years (UPENVIS 2014). The city of Lucknow (and other such cities) lacks in basic in- formation on emissions sources, their locations and strengths. Although the city has no major industries, the number of vehicles is increasing at a rapid rate; for example, nearly 100,000 vehicles are added annually in Lucknow (Pandey et al. 2012). As per the road transport office, the city of Lucknow has over 1.2 million reg- istered vehicles in 2011 (CSIR-IITR 2012). The major vehicle types are: 2-wheelers (2-Ws), 3-wheelers (3-Ws), 4-wheelers 1 Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Dept., Institute of Engineering and Technology Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, India. 2 Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Institute of Engineering and Tech- nology Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, India (corresponding author). E-mail: sps.iet@gmail.com 3 Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India. 4 Post-Doctoral Research Fellow, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National Univ. of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore. 5 Professor and Head, Civil Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, India. 6 Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Institute of Engineering and Technology Lucknow, Lucknow 226021, India. 7 Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Madan Mohan Malaviya Univ. of Technology Gorakhpur, Gorakhpur 273010, India. Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 12, 2013; approved on July 25, 2014; published online on September 4, 2014. Discussion period open until February 4, 2015; separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, © ASCE, ISSN 2153-5493/A4014006(10)/$25.00. © ASCE A4014006-1 J. Hazard. 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