Nested contexts that shape assessment for learning: School-based professional learning community and classroom culture Menucha Birenbaum *, Helena Kimron, Hany Shilton Tel Aviv University, Israel Background and rationale The potential of assessment for learning (AfL) to promote learning, particularly the kind of learning required in the 21st century (Rotherham & Willingham, 2009), has been widely acknowledged (Black, McCormick, James, &, Pedder, 2006; Shepard, 2000; Stiggins, 2005). Yet, evidence from several countries gives rise to certain disappointments due to the improper interpretation and implementation of AfL (Klenowski, 2009). Research has shown that when it is properly implemented, AfL does make a difference (Black & Wiliam, 1998, 2006). However, it is not yet clearly understood which factors facilitate proper implementation of AfL and which hinder it. Effects of external factors, such as accountability testing on classroom assessment, particularly on AfL practice, have been widely investigated, demonstrating mostly detrimental effects (Nichols & Berliner, 2007). Less research has been devoted to the detection of effects of internal (school-related) contextual factors on AfL. Such research has taken place mainly in the UK (James et al., 2007; Pedder, 2006; Wiliam, 2007/2008) and Canada (Earl & Katz, 2006a, 2006b). The current study investigated this issue in yet another culture (Israel) and focused on the nature of both the school- based professional learning community (SBPLC) and the classroom assessment culture (CAC). This study examined the relationships between AfL practices and the respective attributes of those nested contexts, with the aim of identifying patterns of attributes that are conducive to or obstruct proper implementation of AfL. School-based professional learning community (SBPLC) The school-based professional learning community (SBPLC) (DuFour & Eaker, 2002; Kruse, Louis, & Bryk, 1995) is an adaptation to the educational arena of the ‘‘learning organization’’ concept, whose role in increasing the effectiveness of organizations has been widely acknowledged (Senge, 1990). The learning that takes place in a learning organization is based on ideas that were first introduced to management theory, such as feedback (Ramaprasad, 1983) and double-loop learning (Argyris & Scho ¨ n, 1978). Feedback, according to Ramaprasad, is ‘‘information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way’’ (Ramaprasad, 1983, p. 4), thus emphasizing that feedback is not just recognition of the actual level vis-a ` -vis the reference level but also the use of this information for shrinking the gap between the two levels. Ramaprasad further argues that ‘‘the feedback will be more effective when the performer himself generates data on the actual level and acts as the comparator’’ (Ramaprasad, 1983, p. 12). According to Argyris and Scho ¨ n (1978), ‘‘[d]ouble-loop learning occurs when error is detected and corrected in ways that involve the modification of an organization’s underlying norms, policies and objectives’’ (pp. 2– 3). These ideas, as will be discussed later, are key components of the constructs addressed in the current study. Studies in Educational Evaluation 37 (2011) 35–48 ARTICLE INFO Article history: Available online 30 April 2011 ABSTRACT The study investigated the relationships between assessment for learning (AfL) and attributes of two school-related contexts – the classroom assessment culture (CAC) in which AfL is embedded, and the larger context in which CAC is nested, namely the school-based professional learning community (SBPLC). The research design comprised two layers – quantitative and qualitative; the former, using rating-response questionnaires, investigated the association between attributes of SBPLC and AfL in a sample of in-service teachers. The latter, a multiple case study, examined AfL practices of six elementary school teachers, the assessment culture in their classrooms, and characteristics of their SBPLCs. Taken together, the findings of both layers pointed to meaningful relationships among AfL, CAC, and SBPLC highlighting similarities between SBPLC and CAC with regard to cultural attributes and to AfL/inquiry practice. Contextual attribute patterns conducive to proper implementation of AfL and those that impede it were discerned and discussed. ß 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. * Corresponding author. E-mail address: biren@post.tau.ac.il (M. Birenbaum). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Studies in Educational Evaluation journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/stueduc 0191-491X/$ – see front matter ß 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2011.04.001