12 | Paul the Polytheist? roughout the 1990s, scholars of ancient Judaism and early Christianity were locked in theological debate over whether or not Paul may be meaningfully described as a monotheist. Of particular importance to this debate was the question of whether Paul’s christology constitutes a breach — or, more subtly, a ‘mutation’,1 perhaps a ‘redefinition’2 — of monotheism. e discussion that ensued reexamined not only the nature of Pauline christology (‘high’ or ‘low’? from ‘above’ or from ‘below’?), but also the meaning of ‘monotheism’ itself. In anticipation of an upcoming collection of essays revisiting the topic afresh, Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity,3 featuring new contributions from leading lights in the original debate, this paper sets out to offer some critical reflections on the concept of ‘monotheism’ (leaving christology to the side) as a preemptive response to the issue as it is raised once again for a new generation of scholars some thirty years on. If ‘monotheism’ is taken to mean what it has univocally come to mean since the term was coined in 1660 by a Cambridge philosopher (i.e., belief in the existence of only one god),4 then there is surprisingly little evidence to suggest that ancient Judaism may be described as monotheistic, irrespective of Paul’s relation to it.5 e ancient myth of a divine council of lower deities (‘sons of gods’) attending to the high god is well attested in Jewish literature (Job 38.6-7 et al.), and widely acknowledged among scholars.6 So also is the tradition that numbers the Table of Nations not only according Alexander Chantziantoniou &ULWLFDO 5HŴHFWLRQV on the Concept of ‘Monotheism’ Paul the Polytheist? j