NATURALISTIC EPISTEMOLOGY J. Michael Spector Learning and Performance Support Laboratory, University of Georgia Athens, Georgia USA mspector@uga.edu Synonyms Descriptive theory of knowledge development Empirically-based theory of knowledge Evolutionary epistemology Scientific realism Definition Naturalistic epistemology is an approach to the theory of knowledge based on the use of scientific methods and empirical data rather than relying solely on deductive methods and a priori analysis of concepts. Within philosophy, knowledge is generally associated with justified true beliefs. While defining knowledge as justified true belief is problematic, the association of knowledge with beliefs and their justification has led naturalistic epistemologists emphasize and investigate how beliefs are formed, reinforced and further developed into belief systems that guide human action, decision making and problem solving. From a naturalistic perspective, psychology should inform many of the answers to critical questions in epistemology: (a) What are the sources of belief and knowledge? (b) How are beliefs justified? and, (c) What is the structure of knowledge and belief networks? Traditional epistemology approached these questions using deductive methods and with a prior notions of the nature of knowledge (e.g., knowledge involves certainty), the sources of knowledge (e.g., valid deductive arguments and perhaps direct and immediate perceptions), and structure of knowledge (e.g., knowledge structures are based on undeniable truths). Naturalistic epistemology takes a more scientific and psychological approach when exploring these questions. For example, when considering the nature of knowledge, naturalistic epistemology looks at what people in fact accept as well founded and reliable rather than narrowly restrict knowledge to what has been established with absolute certainty (e.g., mathematical knowledge). When considering sources of knowledge, a naturalistic account will examine what people actually use and report using as sources of knowledge rather than be constrained to deductive arguments and immediate perceptions. When considering the structure of knowledge, a naturalistic perspective considers groups of beliefs and their interconnections rather than linking back to a few undeniable axioms of truth (Quine, 1992; Quine & Ullian, 1978). One result of a naturalistic approach to epistemology is that knowledge development and the formation of beliefs become primary considerations (Kornblith, 1994). Knowledge is viewed as something that can and does change, both within the individual knowing subject and within a community of believers. Knowledge is no longer a fixed object. Beliefs that comprise a body of knowledge as viewed as more or less well justified and their interrelationships and interdependencies become a critical aspect of a belief or knowledge network. Finally, the process of coming to know receives as much or perhaps more attention than discrete bits of knowledge that might result from learning and experience.