Superiority of Form% Over Lambda for
Research on the Rorschach
Comprehensive System
Gregory J. Meyer
Department of Psychology
University of Alaska Anchorage
Donald J. Viglione
California School of Professional Psychology
San Diego, California
John E. Exner, Jr.
Rorschach Workshops
Asheville, North Carolina
Lambda is an important variable in the Rorschach Comprehensive System. However,
because of the way it is calculated it has properties that can produce problems for
parametric statistical analyses. We illustrate these difficulties and encourage the use
of Form% (i.e., pure form responses/total responses) instead of Lambda in research.
Form% is easy to calculate, and it is conceptually and mathematically comparable to
Lambda. Because it is much more normally distributed, Form% is suitable to use in
parametric analyses (e.g., t tests, analyses of variance, correlations, factor analyses,
multiple regressions).
Lambda is a key variable in the Rorschach Comprehensive System (CS). It is calcu-
lated as the ratio of pure form responses to nonpure form responses. Specifically,
Lambda = F/(R – F), where F indicates the number of pure form responses, and R
indicates the total number of responses. Lambda has a long history in Rorschach
scoring (see Exner, 1993), and it is frequently interpreted as a dichotomous variable
that indicates the tendency to simplify complex stimulus fields (i.e., Lambda >
0.99) or not (i.e., Lambda < 1.0). As a dichotomous variable, Lambda can be used in
many nonparametric statistical analyses (e.g., chi-square tests, median tests, sign
JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT, 76(1), 68–75
Copyright © 2001, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.